UC-NRLF 


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(Utjf  llutuprsitii  of  QII]tra00 

FOITNDED   BY   JOHN   D.  ROCKEFELLER 


The  Influence  of  Cicero  Upon  Augustine 

in  the  Development  of  his  Oratorical 

Theory  for  the  Training  of  the 

Ecclesiastical  Orator 


A  DISSERTATION 

SUBMITTED  TO  THE  FACULTY  OF  THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL  OF  ARTS  AND 

LITERATURE   IN   CANDIDACY   FOR  THE  DEGREE   OF 

DOCTOR   OF   PHILOSOPHY 

(department   of   latin) 


BY 
JAMES  BURNETTE  ESKRIDGE 


MENASHA,    WIS. 

THE    COLLEGIATE    PRESS 

GEORGE    BANTA    PUBLISHING    CO. 

1912 


GR(^<^ 


/ 


^       PREFACE 

This  dissertation  is  the  outcome  of  a  year's  work,  1902-03,  in 
the  University  of  Chicago,  with  Professor  George  Lincoln 
Hendrickson,  now  of  Yale  University.  The  work  done  under  his 
direction  was  a  technical  study  of  the  rhetorical  writings  of  Cicero. 
In  studying  the  influence  of  Cicero  upon  Augustine  with  regard  to 
the  three  styles,  while  preparing  a  thesis  for  the  degree  of  Master 
of  Arts,  it  was  impossible  not  to  be  impressed  with  his  influence 
upon  Augustine's  oratorical  system  as  a  whole.  I  have,  therefore, 
attempted  to  show  the  influence  of  Cicero  in  its  entirety  upon 
Augustine's  theory  of  oratorical  training  for  the  preacher. 

Augustine,  in  an  earlier  work,  entitled  Contra  Cresconium, 
touched  somewhat  upon  matters  of  a  rhetorical  character,  though 
the  best  of  his  technical  treatment  of  the  subject  is  to  be  found  in 
a  small  work  entitled  De  Doctrina  Christiana,  in  four  books,  three 
of  which  are  devoted  to  the  method  of  interpreting  Scripture 
through  the  ascertaining  of  its  proper  meaning,  and  the  fourth 
to  the  manner  of  making  this  meaning  known  in  the  most 
effective  way.  The  fourth  book,  then,  is  rhetorical  and  literary  and 
draws  on  the  theory  of  Cicero  as  treated  in  the  De  Oratore,  the 
Brutus  and  the  Orator. 

Finally,  whatever  excellence  of  method  of  treatment  this  dis- 
sertati<?n  may  possess  is  due,  in  no  small  measure,  to  the  instructors, 
in  general,  with  whom  I  came  in  contact,  and  in  particular,  to  Pro- 
fessor Hendrickson.  Any  errors  of  interpretation,  treatment  or  de- 
tail, are  chargeable  to  myself  alone. 

J.    B.    ESKRIDGE. 

Note.  In  Die  Antike  Kunstprosa,  von  Eduard  Norden,  Zweiter 
Band,  Zweiter  Abdruck,  1909,  page  617,  the  statement  is  made  that 
the  first  three  books  of  De  Doctrina  Christiana  pertain  to  inventio, 
and  the  third  to  elocutio ;  and  that  as  regards  Augustine,  his  grosse 
Lehrmeister  war  Cicero,  der  auctor  Romani  eloquii.  He  further 
calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  three  styles  are  taken  from 
Cicero.  This  is  what  Augustine  himself  tells  us  in  so  many  words. 
On  page  505  Norden  cites  a  passage  of  Scripture  quoted  by  Augus- 
tine as  showing  membra  and  caesa,  and  in  other  places  free  reference 
is  made  to  Augustine. 


306160 


I  have  not  seen  Colincamp's  La  Methode  Oratoire  dans  St. 
Augustine,  1848,  nor  Lezat's  De  Orafore  Christiana  apitd  St. 
Augustinum,  1871, 

In  my  Master's  dissertation,  1903,  as  above  mentioned,  the 
question  of  the  three  styles  of  Augustine  and  his  dependence  upon 
Cicero  was  treated.  In  A.  J.  P.  Vol.  XXVI,  p.  276  ff.,  Professor 
Hendrickson,  in  a  historical  treatment  of  the  "Origin  and  Meaning 
of  Characters  of  Style",  in  so  far  as  his  purposes  are  concerned, 
bears  out  my  conclusions. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Preface   iii 

I.     Introduction i 

II.     Augustine's  Ideal  Ecclesiastical  Orator 4 

III.  The  Offices  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Orator 16 

IV.  Derivation  of  the  Three  Styles  of  Oratory 18 

V.     The  Plain  Style,  or  Submissa  Dictio 19 

VI.     The  Middle  Style,  or  Temperata  Dictio 21 

VII.     The  Grand  Style,  or  Grandis  Dictio 22 

VIII.     Combination  of  the  Three  Styles 24 

IX.     The  Interpretation  of  the  Divisions  of  Style 27 

X.     The  Norm  of  Augustine ;    Examples  from  Paul  and 

Amos     30 

XI.     Illustration  of  the  Plain  Style 37 

XII.     Illustration  of  the  Middle  Style 46 

XIII.  Illustration  of  the  Grand  Style    48 

XIV.  Fundamental    Differences    Between    Augustine    and 

Cicero   50 

XV.     Summary    55 


I.  INTRODUCTION 
The  controversy  between  the  philosophers  and  rhetoricians  re- 
garding the  relative  merits  of  philosophy  and  rhetoric,  respectively, 
had  gone  on  for  centuries  before  St.  Augustine's  day.^  Feeling, 
therefore,  that  neither  philosophy  nor  rhetoric  was  sufficient  within 
itself  for  the  education  of  the  ecclesiastical  orator,  but  that  both 
were  alike  essential,  in  D.  D.  C.  IV,  7  and  8,  he  encourages  the 
employment  of  both  to  the  end  that  the  orator  may  equip  himself 
with  the  best  training  possible  for  his  profession.^  He  would  have 
^  Notes  from  Prof.  Hendrickson's  Research  Course  in  Cicero,  University 

of  Chicago,  1903.  i    u  *■  ^-^ 

In  A  Gellius  XV,  11.2,  Crassus  banishes  the  teachers  of  rhetor  c. 
Sextus  Empiricus  contains  an  account  of  the  attack  of  the  philosophers 

on  rhetoric.     W,  ^a#,^axtxo05  B  (Bekker  p.  678.  20  f.)  U,o,  P,T«Qa,.  sec- 

''°"^d'  D   C   IV   7  8-    Sed  cum  alii  faciant  obtuse,  deformiter,  f rigide ;    alii 
acute    ornate,   vehementer;    ilium    ad   hoc   opus   unde   agimus,    lam    oportet 
accedere     qui    potest    disputare    vel    dicere    sapienter,    et:amsi    non    pot  st 
eloquenter.  ut  prosit  audientibus,   etiamsi  minus   quam   prodesse.   si   et  elo- 
que'nter  posset 'dicere.     Qui      vero  affluit  insipienti  eloQuentia    tanto  mag 
cavendus  est,  quanto  magis  ab  eo  in  iis  quae  audire  inutile  est,  de lectatur 
auditor    et  cum  quoniam  diserte  dicere  audit,  etiam  vere  dicere   existimat. 
Ha        ^utem    sententia    nee    illos    fugit,    qui    artem    rhetoricam    docendam 
putarunt:   fassi   sunt  enim   sapientiam  sine  eloquentia  parum  prodesse  cm- 
tat  bus ;    eloquentiam   vero    sine   sapientia   nimium   obesse   plerumque    prod- 
e    mmquam.      Si    ergo    hoc    illi    qui    praecepta    eloquentiae    tradiderunt. 
in   eisdem  libris   in   quibus   id   egerunt,  veritate   instigante   coacti    sunt  con- 
fiter     veTam,  hoc  estNupernam  quae  a  Patre  luminum  descendit,  sap.entiam 
nesckntes;  quanto  magis  nos  non  aliud  sentire  debemus,  qui  hujus  sapien- 
Hae  filfet  ministri  sumus?     Sapienter  autem   dicit  homo  tanto  magis  ve 
minus    quanto  in    Scripturis   Sanctis  magis  vel   minus,  quanto   in    Scnpturis 
Tanctis    magis  minusve  profecit.     Non  dico  in  eis  multum  legendis  memon- 
aeque   manlandis,    sed  bene  intelligendis,   et   diligenter   earum   sensibus   m- 
dagandis     Sunt  enim  qui  eas  legunt,  et  negligunt ;   legunt  ut  teneant,  negligunt 
n  'nte  ligant.     Quibus  longe  sine  dubio  praeferendi   sunt  qui  verba  ^arum 
minus  tenent,  et  cor  earum  sui  cordis  oculis  vident.     Sed  utnsque  ille  mehor, 
qui  et  cum  volet  eas  dicit,  et  sicut  oportet  mtelligit. 

Huic  ergo  qui  sapienter  debet  dicere,  etiam  quod  non  potest  eloquenter, 
verba  Scripturarum  tenere  maxime  necessarium  est.  Quanto  enim  se  pau^ 
periorem  cernit  in  suis,  tanto  eum  oportet  in  istis  esse  ditiorem ;  ut  quod 
dixerit  suis  verbis,  prabet  ex  illis ;  et  qui  propriis  ^^'^^'^^^"^'^21 
norum  testimonio  quodammodo  crescat.     Probando  enim  delectat  qui  minus 


2.       CICERO's   INFLUENCE   UPON   AUGUSTINe's  0R.\T0RICAL  THEORY 

him  neither  a  wise  teacher,  lacking  in  the  proper  training  along 
rhetorical  lines,  nor  a  loquacious  pedant  devoid  of  that  soberness 
of  thought  and  depth  of  wisdom  which  are  to  be  obtained  only 
through  philosophy.  If  one  of  the  two  must  be  neglected,  it  is 
preferable  for  the  ecclesiastical  orator  to  possess  wisdom  rather 
than  eloquence.  But  far  better  is  it  that  he  should  possess  wisdom 
and  eloquence,  both  in  harmonious  combination,  since  it  is  in  this 
way  only  that  he  can  attain  more  nearly  to  perfection. 

Upon  this  fundamental  conception,  that  of  the  employing  of 
philosophy  and  rhetoric.^  or  in  the  case  of  the  ecclesiastical  orator, 
Scripture,  which  stands  in  the  same  relation  to  the  ecclesiastical 
orator  as  philosophy  does  to  the  ideal  orator  of  Cicero,  Augustine 
constructs  his  entire  theory  of  ecclesiastical  education.  In  this  he 
follows  Cicero,  who  recognizing  the  futility  and  the  absurdity  of  the 
respective  claims  of  philosophy  and  rhetoric  when  divorced  from 
each  other,  endeavored  to  unite  the  two  in  the  training  of  his  ideal 
orator.  In  De  Orat.  Ill,  35,  142-3,  Cicero  says:  Nunc  sive  qui 
volet  eum  philosophum,  qui  copiam  nobis  rerum  orationisque  tradat, 
per  me  appellet  oratorem  licet ;  sive  hunc  oratorem,  quem  ego  dico 
sapientiam  iunctam  habere  eloquentiae,  philosophum  appellare  malet, 
non  impediam ;  dummodo  hoc  constet,  neque  infantiam  eius,  qui  rem 
norit,  sed  earn  explicare  dicendo  non  queat,  neque  inscientiam  illius, 
cui  res  non  suppetat,  verba  non  desint,  esse  laudandam;  quorum 


potest  delectare  dicendo.  Porro  qui  non  solum  sapienter.  verum  etiam  elo- 
quenter  vult  dicere,  quoniam  profecto  plus  proderit,  si  utrumque  potuerit; 
ad  legendos  vel  audiendos  et  exercitatione  imitandos  eloquentes  eum  mitto 
libentius,  quam  magistris  artis  rhetoricae  vacare  praecipio;  si  tamen  ii  qui 
leguntur  et  audiuntur,  non  solum  eloquenter,  sed  etiam  sapienter  dixisse  vel 
dicere  veraci  praedicatione  laudantur.  Qui  enim  eloquenter  dicunt,  suaviter; 
qui  sapienter,  salubriter  audiuntur.  Propter  quod  non  ait  Scriptura,  Multi- 
tudo  eloquentium ;  sed,  "Multitudo  sapientium  sanitas  est  orbis  terrarum." 
Sicut  autem  saepe  sumenda  sunt  et  amara  salubria,  ita  semper  vitanda  est 
perniciosa  dulcedo.  Sed  salubri  suavitate,  vel  suavi  salubritate  quid  melius? 
Quanto  enim  magis  illic  appetitur  suavitas,  tanto  facilius  salubritas  prodest. 
Sunt  ergo  ecclesiastici  viri  qui  divina  eloquia  non  solum  sapienter,  sed  eloquen- 
ter etiam  tractaverunt :  quibus  legendis  magis  non  sufficit  tempus  quam 
deesse  ipsi  studentibus  et  vacantibus  possunt. 

^D.  D.  C.  1,  i:  Duae  sunt  res  quibus  nititur  omnis  tractatio  Scriptura- 
rum :  modus  inveniendi  quae  intelligenda  sunt,  et  modus  proferendi  quae 
intellecta  sunt. 


INTRODUCTION  3 

si  alterum  sit  optandum,  nialim  equidein  indisertam  prudcntiain  quam 
sttiltitiam  loqiiacem ;  si  quaerimus  quid  unum  excellat  ex  omnibus, 
docto  oratori  palma  danda  est ;  quern  si  patiuntur  eundem  esse 
philosophum,  sublata  conlroversia  est.  Sin  cos  diiungent,  hoc  erunt 
inferiores,  quod  in  oratore  pcrfecto  inest  illorum  omnis  scientia,  in 
phiiosophorum  autem  cognitione  non  continuo  inest  eloquentia;  quae 
quamvis  contemnatur  ab  eis,  necesse  est  tamen  aliquem  cumulum 
illorum  artibus  adferre  videatur. 

As  to  the  relative  values,  however,  of  philosophy  and  rhetoric, 
further  than  that  wisdom  without  eloquence  is  preferable  to  elo- 
quence without  wisdom,  Augustine  does  not  concern  himself.  Yet 
he  makes  a  like  assumption,  in  the  case  of  the  training  of  the  ecclesi- 
astical orator,  as  that  made  by  the  teachers  of  rhetoric,  that  although 
there  can  be  no  need  in  theological  investigations  for  error  to  be 
made  to  appear  superior  to  truth,  yet  truth  when  wielded  by  a 
worthy  and  conscientious  defender,  can  be  made  to  do  quick  and 
effective  service  if  adorned  by  the  noble  art  of  rhetoric. 


II.  AUGUSTINE'S  IDEAL  ECCLESIASTICAL  ORATOR 
Augustine,  both  before  and  after  having  discussed  the  aims  of 
the  orator  according  to  Cicero,  in  D.  D.  C.  IV,  2"/,^  gives  what  may 
with  propriety  be  called  his  conception  of  the  ideal  ecclesiastical 
orator,  if  by  this  it  be  understood  that  he  is  giving  the  treatment  in 
outline  rather  than  specifically  and  in  detail,  and  that  it  is  rather  as 
a  prelude  to  his  after-treatment  than  as  a  technical  discussion  of  what 
the  ecclesiastical  orator  should  be.  It  is,  furthermore,  to  be  borne 
in  mind,  that  his  fundamental  conceptions  are  to  be  gathered  up 
here  and  there  and  put  into  an  articulated  form,  before  it  becomes 
apparent  that  he  is  developing  his  ideals  along  the  lines  of  classical 
models. 

Nowhere  does  he  state,  with  specific  exactness,  that  he  is  draw- 
ing his  sketch  of  his  ideal  orator,  but  on  the  other  hand,  he  says,  in 
D.  D.  C.  IV,  I  and  2,-  that  the  theory  and  rules  of  eloquence  are  to 
be  learned  elsewhere,  and  are  not  to  be  expected  from  him,  and  that 
he  is  merely  going  to  say  a  few  things  about  the  mode  of  making 
known  the  meaning  of  the  Scripture.    (D.  D.  G.  IV,  i.i.)' 

Yet  careful  study  will  reveal  the  fact  that  however  unsystemati- 
cally,  from  the  modern  point  of  view,  he  may  be  proceeding  with 

^  D.  D.  C.  IV,  12.  27 :  Dixit  ergo  quidam  eloquens,  et  verum  dixit,  ita 
dicere  debere  eloquentem,  ut  doceat,  ut  delectet,  ut  flectat.  Deinde  addidit; 
"Docere  necessitatis  est,  delectare  suavitatis,  flectere  victoriae."  (Cicero,  De 
Oratore)  .  Horum  trium  quod  primo  loco  positum  est,  hoc  est  docendi 
recessitas,  in  rebus  est  constituta  quas  dicimus;  reliqua  duo,  in  modo  quo 
dicimus.  Qui  ergo  dicit  cum  docere  vult,  quamdiu  non  intelligetur,  non- 
dum  se  existimet  dixisse  quod  vult  ei  quern  vult  docere.  Quia  etsi  dixit 
quod  ipse  intelligit,  nondum  illi  dixisse  putandus  est,  a  quo  intellectus  non 
est:  si  vero  intellectus  est,  quocumque  modo  dixerit,  dixit.  Quod  si  etiam 
delectare  vult  eum  cui  dicit,  aut  flectere,  non  quocumque  modo  dixerit, 
faciet :  sed  interest  quomodo  dicat,  ut  faciat.  Sicut  est  autem,  ut  teneatur 
ad  audiendum,  delectandus  auditor ;  ita  flectendus,  ut  moveatur  ad  agendum. 

^D.  D.  C.  IV,  1.2:  Primo  itaque  expectationem  legentium,  qui  forte  me 
putant  rhetorica  daturum  esse  praecepta  quae  in  scholis  saecularibus  et 
didici  et  docui,  ista  praelocutione  cohibeo,  atque  ut  a  me  non  exspectentur, 
admoneo ;  non  quod  nihil  habeant  utilitatis ;  sed  quod,  si  quid  habent, 
seorsum  discendum  est,  si  cui  fortassis  bono  viro  etiam  haec  vacat  discere, 
non  autem  a  me  vel  in  hoc  opere,  vel  in  aliqua  alio  requirendum. 

'D.  D.  C.  IV,  I.  I  :  Quia  ergo  de  inveniendo  multa  iam  diximus,  et  tria 
de  hac  una  parte  volumina  absolvimus.  Domino  adjuvante,  de  proferendo 
pauca  dicemus. 


Augustine's  ideal  ecclesiastical  orator  5 

his  undertaking,  he  is,  after  all,  giving  in  outline  his  ideal  of  what 
the  ecclesiastical  orator  should  be,  and  that  this  ideal  is,  in  so  far 
as  the  nature  of  it  will  admit,  taken  from  Cicero.  The  ideal  orator 
of  Cicero  is  the  lawyer,  the  statesman ;  Augustine's  is  the  preacher. 
The  fact  of  his  having  protested  with  vigor,  D.  D.  C.  IV.  2.  3,* 
that  rhetoric  is  as  available  to  the  preacher  as  to  the  sophist  or 
opponent  of  truth ;  that  there  is  a  proper  time  to  learn  the  rules  of 
rhetoric,  D.  D.  C.  IV,  3.  4f  that  the  preacher  must  instruct,  con- 
ciliate and  arouse  his  hearers,  D.  D.  C.  IV,  4.  6f  that  if  wisdom  or 
eloquence  is  to  be  lacking  in  the  preacher,  he  should  be  wise  rather 
than  eloquent,  D.  D.  C.  IV,  5.  7  ;^  that  he  should  endeavor  always  to 
be  clear  and  intelligible,  D.  D.  C.  IV,  10.  24  f  that  he  should  speak 
*  D.  D.  C.  IV,  2.  3 :  Nam  cum  per  artem  rhetoricam  et  vera  suadeantur 
et  falsa,  quis  audeat  dicere,  adversus  mendacium  in  defensoribus  suis 
inermem  debere  consistere  veritatem,  ut  videlicet  illi  qui  res  falsas  per- 
suadere  conantur,  noverint  auditorem  vel  benevolum,  vel  intentum,  vel 
docilem  prooemio  facere ;  isti  autem  non  noverint?  illi  falsa  breviter, 
aperte,  verissimiliter ;  et  isti  vera  sic  narrent,  ut  audire  taedeat,  intelligere  non 
pateat,  credere  postremo  non  libeat?  illi  fallacibus  argumentis  veritatem 
oppugnent,  asserant  falsitatem ;  isti  nee  vera  defendere,  nee  falsa  valeant 
refutare?  illi  animos  audientium  in  errorem  moventes  impellentesque  dicendo 
terreant,  contristent,  exhilarent,  exhortentur  ardenter;  isti  pro  veritate, 
lenti  frigidique  dormitent?  Quis  ita  desipiat,  ut  hoc  sapiat?  Cum  ergo  sit 
in  medio  posita  facultas  eloquii,  quae  ad  persuadenda  seu  prava  seu  recta 
valet  plurimum :  cur  non  bonorum  studio  comparatur,  ut  militet  veritati, 
si  earn  mali  ad  obtinendas  perversas  vanasque  causas  in  usus  iniquitatis  et 
erroris  usurpant? 

^  D.  D.  C.  IV,  3.4 :  Sed  quaecumque  sunt  de  hac  re  observationes  atque 
praecepta,  quibus  cum  accedit  in  verbis  plurimis  ornamentisque  verborum 
exercitationis  linguae  solertissima  consuetudo,  fit  ilia  quae  facundia  vel  elo- 
quentia  nominatur ;  extra  istas  litteras  nostras,  seposito  ad  hoc  congruo  tem- 
poris  spatio,  apta  et  convenient!  aetate  discenda  sunt  eis  qui  hoc  celeriter 
possunt. 

^D.  D.  C.  IV,  4.6:     Debet  igitur  divinarum   Scripturarum  tractator  et 
doctor,  defensor  rectae  fidei  ac  debellator  erroris,  et  bona  docere,  et  mala 
dedocere;  atque  in  hoc  opere  sermonis  conciliare  adversos,  remissos  erigere, 
nescientibus  quid  agatur,  quid  exspectare  debeant  intimare. 
'  See  page  i,  note  2. 

^D.  D.  C.  IV,  10.24:  Quid  enim  prodest  locutionis  integritas,  quam 
non  sequitur  intellectus  audientis,  cum  loquendi  omnino  nulla  sit  causa,  si 
quod  loquimur  non  intelligunt,  propter  quos  ut  intelligant  loquimur?  Qui 
ergo  docet,  vitabit  omnia  verba  quae  non  docent;  et  si  pro  eis  alia  integra, 
quae  intelligantur,  potest  dicere,  id  magis  eliget:  si  autem  non  potest,  sive 
quia  non  sunt,  sive  quia  in  praesentia  non  occurrunt,  utetur  etiam  verbis 
minus  integris,  dum  tamen  res  ipsa  doceatur  atque  discatur  integre. 


6       CICERO's   INFLUENCE   UPON   AUGUSTINE's  ORATORICAL  THEORY 

both  clearly  and  eloquently,  D.  D.  C.  IV,  ii.  26  f  that  the  beauty  of 
his  speech  should  be  in  harmony  with  his  subject  matter,  and  that 
he  should  vary  his  style  constantly,  D.  D.  C.  IV,  22.  51  ;i"  that  his 
life  should  be  in  harmony  with  his  teachings,  D.  D.  C.  IV,  27.  59  ;i^ — 
all  this  shows  that  he  had  in  mind  a  very  high  ideal,  even  though  he 
did  not  deem  it  necessary  to  develop  it  as  thoroughly,  or  to  elabo- 
rate upon  it  as  elegantly  as  Cicero  did  upon  his  ideal  orator.  It  is 
the  purpose  of  this  chapter,  then,  to  point  out  the  essential  elements, 
in  outline,  of  Augustine's  ideal  orator,  and  to  compare  them  with 
those  of  Cicero,  to  ascertain,  if  we  may,  in  just  what  particulars 
they  agree ;  and  also  to  show  that  the  ideal  orator  in  the  mind  of  the 

^  D.  D.  C.  IV,  11.26:  Prorsus  haec  est  in  docendo  eloquentia,  qua  fit 
dicendo,  non  ut  libeat  quod  horrebat,  aut  ut  fiat  quod  pigebat,  sed  ut 
appareat  quod  latebat.  Quod  tamen  si  fiat  insuaviter,  ad  paucos  quidem 
studiosissimos  suus  pervenit  fructus,  qui  ea  quae  discenda  sunt,  quamvis  ab- 
jecte  inculteque  dicantur,  scire  desiderant.  Quod  cum  adepti  fuerint,  ipsa 
delectabiliter  veritate  pascuntur :  bonorumque  ingeniorum  insignis  est  in- 
doles, in  verbis  verum  amare,  non  verba.  Quid  enim  prodest  clavis  aurae, 
si  aperire  quod  volumus  non  potest?  Aut  quid  obest  lignea,  si  hoc  potest? 
quando  nihil  quaerimus  nisi  patere  quod  clausum  est.  Sed  quoniam  inter 
se  habent  nonnullam  similitudinem  vescentes  atque  discentes,  propter  fastidia 
plurimorum,  etiam  ipsa  sine  quibus  vivi  non  potest,  alimenta  condienda 
sunt. 

^"  D.  D.  C.  IV,  22.51:  Nee  quisqnam  praeter  discipHnam  esse  existimet 
ita  miscere :  imo  quantum  congrue  fieri  potest,  omnibus  generibus  dictio 
varianda  est.  Nam  quando  prolixa  est  in  uno  genere,  minus  detinet  audi- 
torem.  Cum  vero  fit  in  aliud  ab  alio  transitus,  etiamsi  longius  eat,  decentius 
procedit  oratio :  quamvis  habeant  et  singula  genera  varietates  suas  in 
sermone  eloquentium,  quibus  non  sinuntur  in  eorum  qui  audiunt  frigescere 
vel  tepescere  sensibus.  Verumtamen  facilius  submissum  solum,  quam  solum 
grande  diutius  tolerari  potest.  Commotio  quippe  animi  quanto  magis 
excitanda  est,  ut  nobis  assentiatur  auditor  tanto  minus  in  ea  diu  teneri 
potest,  cum  fuerit  quantum  satis  est  excitata.  Et  ideo  cavendum  est,  ne 
dum  volumus  altius  erigere  quod  erectum  est,  etiam  inde  decidat,  quo 
fuerat  excitatione  perductum.  Interpositis  vero  quae  sunt  dicenda  sub- 
missius,  bene  reditur  ad  ea  quae  opus  est  granditer  dici,  ut  dictionis  impetus 
sicut  maris  aestus  alternet.  Ex  quo  fit  ut  grande  dicendi  genus,  si  diutius  est 
dicendum,  non  debeat  esse  solum,  sed  aliorum  generum  interpositione 
varietur;    ei  tamen  genere  dictio  tota  tribuitur,  cujus  copia  praevaluerit. 

"  D.  D.  C.  IV,  27.  59 :  Habet  autem  ut  obedienter  audiatur,  quantacumque 
granditate  dictionis  majus  pondus  vita  dicentis.  Nam  qui  sapienter  et 
eloquenter  dicit,  vivit  autem  nequiter,  erudit  quidem  multos  discendi  studiosos, 
quamvis  "animae  suae  sit  inutilis."    (Eccles.  XXXVII,  22),  sicut  scriptum  est. 


Augustine's  ideal  ecclesiastical  orator  7 

Bishop  of  Hippo,  was  in  all  essential  respects,  the  same  as  the  ideal 
orator  of  the  great  statesman  of  Rome. 

(a)     The  Moral  Character  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Orator 
However  great  may  be  the  ecclesiastical  orator,  and  however 
majestic  his  style  may  be,  if  his  life  and  character  be  in  accord  with 
his  eloquence  and  with  his  teachings,  he  will  have  far  more  mfluence 
in  inducing  compliance  on  the  part  of  his  hearers,  than  if  he  be  lack- 
ing in  these  essentials.     It  is  possible,  however,  that  the  orator's 
life  may  not  be  without  serious  blemish,  and  yet  his  teachmgs  be 
beneficial  to  those  who  hear,  seeing  that  in  just  the  proportion  that 
his  life  fails  to  accord  with  his  teachings,  in  just  this  proportion 
must  he  the  more  forcefully  present  the  truth.    Granting  this,  it  still 
remains   true,   that   the   teacher   whose   character   is   upright,   and 
whose  name  is  free  from  reproach,  if  he  be  fitly  trained  for  his 
duties  in  all  particulars,  will  wield  an  influence  over  his  hearers  that 
the  great  and  sublime  orator,  though  of  irregular  morals,  will  never 
accomplish.     (D.  D.  C.  IV,  27.  59.)"'  To  quote  Augustine's  own  lan- 
cruage,  D.  D.  C.  IV,  27.  60:  Multis  itaque  prosunt  dicendo  quae  non 
faciunt  sed  longe  pluribus  prodessent  faciendo  quae  dicunt.    Abun- 
dant enim  qui  malae  vitae  suae  def ensionem  ex  ipsis  suis  praepositis 
et  doctoribus  quaerant,  respondentes  corde  suo,  aut  etiam  si  ad  hoc 
erumpunt,  ore  suo,  atque  dicentes :  quod  mihi  praecipis,  cur  ipse  non 
f acis  ?    Ita  fit  ut  eum  non  obedienter  audiant,  qui  seipse  non  audit, 
et  Dei  verbum  quod  eis  praedicatur,  simul  cum  ipso  praedicatore 
contemnant.    Denique  Apostolus  scribens  ad  Timotheum,  cum  dixis- 
set,  "Nemo  adolescentiam  tuam  contemnat";  subjecit  unde  non  con- 
ten^neretur,  atque  ait :    "Sed  forma  esto  fidelium  in  sermone,  in  con- 
versatione,  in  dilectione,  in  fide,  in  castitate."  (I  Tim.  IV,  12.) 
(b)     The  Moral  Character  of  the  Legal  Orator 
As  regards  the  moral  character  of  Cicero's  ideal  orator,  in  De 
Orat.  II,  43.  182,  he  says:    Valet  igitur  multum  ad  vincendum  pro- 
bari  mores  et  instituta  eorum,  qui  agent  causas,  et  eorum,  pro  quibus, 
et   item   improbari   adversariorum   animosque   eorum,    apud   quos 
agetur,  conciliari  quam  maxime  ad  benevolentiam  quom  erga  ora- 
torem  tum  erga  ilium,  pro  quo  dicet  orator.     Conciliantur  autem 
animi   dignitate   hominis,    rebus   gestis,    existimatione   vitae;   quae 
facilius  ornari  possunt,  si  modo  sunt,  quam  fingi,  si  nulla  sunt. 

"  See  page  6,  note  11. 


8       CICERO's  INFLUENCE   UPON   AUGUSTINE's  ORATORICAL  THEORY 

It  is  thus  fair  to  conclude,  that,  with  the  exception  of  the  idea 
that  the  moral  character  of  the  ecclesiastical  orator  may  not  be  with- 
out serious  defects,  and  yet  that  his  preaching  may  be  beneficial  to 
/  his  hearers,  the  conception  of  Augustine  as  regards  the  moral  char- 

acter of  his  orator  is  the  same  as  that  of  Cicero  regarding  his  ideal 
orator,  and  that  this  exception  is  more  apparent  than  real,  inasmuch 
as  it  is  the  m.essage  of  the  ecclesiastical  orator  and  not  the  orator 
himself  that  counts. 

(2) 

(a)  The  Ecclesiastical  Orator  and  His  Duty 
The  orator  of  St.  Augustine  is  the  divinarum  Scripturarum  trac- 
tator  et  doctor,  defensor  rectae  fidei  ac  debellator  erroris.  It  is  his 
office  to  teach  the  true  faith,  and  to  urge  men  and  women  to  accept 
it.  It  is  his  duty  bona  docere  et  mala  dedocere ;  atque  in  hoc  opere 
sermonis  conciliare  adversos,  remissos  erigere,  nescientibus  quid 
agatur,  quid  exspectare  debeant  intimare.  Ubi  autem  benevolos, 
intentos,  dociles  aut  invenerit,  aut  ipse  fecerit,  cetera  peragenda 
sunt,  sicut  postulat  causa.  Si  docendi  sunt  qui  audiunt,  narratione 
faciendum  est,  si  tamen  indigeat,  ut  res  de  qua  agitur  innotescat.  Ut 
autem  quae  dubia  sunt  certa  fiant,  documentis  adhibitis  ratiocinan- 
dum  est.  Si  vero  qui  audiunt  movendi  sunt  potius  quam  docendi, 
ut  in  eo  quo  iam  sciunt,  agendo  non  torpeant  et  rebus  assensum,  quas 
veras  esse  fatentur,  accommodent,  maioribus  dicendi  viribus  opus 
est.  Ibi  obsecrationes  et  increpationes,  concitationes  et  coercitiones, 
et  quaecumque  alia  volent  ad  commovendos '  animos,  sunt  neces- 
saria.     (L>.  Z).  C.  IV,  4.  6.) 

It  is,  then,  the  duty  of  the  ecclesiastical  orator  to  teach  the  truth, 
to  refute  error,  to  conciliate  the  hostile,  to  arouse  the  apathetic,  to 
render  those  who  hear  attentive,  to  make  plain  that  which  is  obscure, 
to  entreat,  to  reproach,  to  upbraid,  to  exhort  to  duty ;  in  fine,  to 
make  use  of  all  the  means  possible  to  cause  his  hearers  to  act. 

(b)    Cicero's  Ideal  Orator  and  His  Duty 

With  reference  to  Cicero's  ideal  orator,,  whom  he  defines  in 
Orator,  2,  7  and  8 ;  and  as  to  his  duties  which  he  mentions  in  general 
terms  in  De  Orat.  I,  8,  and  Orator,  2,  8  and  9,  (the  two  latter  under 
the  forms  of  exquisite  eulogies  on  the  art  of  eloquence) — in  Orator, 
2,  7  and  8,  he  says :    Atque  ego  in  summo  oratore  fingendo  talem 


Augustine's  ideal  ecclesiastical  orator  9 

informabo,  qualis  fortasse  nemo  fuit.  Non  enim  quaero  quis 
fuerit;  sed  quid  sit  illud,  quo  nihil  esse  possit  praestantius, 
quod  in  perpetuitate  dicendi  non  saepe  atque  haud  scio  an 
nunquam,  in  aliqua  autem  parte  eluceat  aliquando,  idem  apud  alios 
densius,  apud  alios  fortasse  rarius.  Sed  ego  sic  statuo,  nihil  ess€ 
in  ullo  genere  tam  pulcrum,  quo  non  pulcrius  id  sit  unde  illud  ut  ex 
ore  aliquo  quasi  imago  exprimatur;  quod  neque  ocuHs  neque  auribus 
neque  ullo  sensu  percipi  potest,  cogitatione  tantum  et  mente  com- 
plectimur.  Furthermore  he  is  to  be  engaged  in  foro  causisque  civili- 
bus,  which  defines  his  sphere  of  action.  He  is  the  lawyer,  the  states- 
man. With  reference  to  his  functions,  in  his  tribute  to  the  nobility 
of  the  art,  he  says  in  De  Oraf.  I,  8.31:  Quid  enim  est  aut  tam 
admirabile  quam  ex  infinita  multitudine  hominum  existere  unum, 
qui  id,  quod  omnibus  natura  sit  datum,  vel  solus  vel  cum  paucis 
facere  possit?  aut  tam  iucundum  cognitu  atque  auditu  quam  sapien- 
tibus  sententiis  gravibusque  verbis  ornata  oratio  et  polita?  aut  tam 
potens  tamque  magnificum  quanl  populi  motus,  iudicum  religiones, 
senatus  gravitatem  unius  oratione  converti?  Quid  tam  porro 
regium,  tam  liberale,  tam  munificum  quam  opem  ferre  supplicibus, 
excitare  afflictos,  dare  salutem,  liberare  periculis,  retinere  homines 
in  civitate?  Quid  autem  tam  necessarium  quam  tenere  semper 
arma,  quibus  vel  tectus  ipse  esse  possis  vel  provocare  integer  vel  te 
ulcisci  lacessitus?  Age  vero,  ne  semper  forum  subsellia  rostra 
curiamque  meditere,  quid  esse  potest  in  otio  aut  iucundius  aut  magis 
proprium  humanitatis,  quam  sermo  facetus  ac  nulla  in  re  rudis? 

Again  in  De  Orat.  II,  8.34,  ft'.:  Qui  enim  cantus  moderata 
oratione  dulcior  inveniri  potest?  quod  carmen  artificiosa  verborum 
conclusione  aptius?  qui  actor  imitanda,  quam  orator  suscipienda 
veritate  iucundior?  Quid  autem  subtilius  quam  crebrae  acutaeque 
sententiae?  quid  admirabilius  quam  res  splendore  illustrata 
verborum?  quid  plenius  quam  omni  genere  rerum-cumulata  oratio? 
Neque  uUa  non  propria  oratoris  res  est,  quae  quidem  ornate  dici 
graviterque  debet.  Huius  est  in  dando  consilio  de  maximis  rebus 
cum  dignitate  explicata  sententia ;  eiusdem  et  languentis  populi 
incitatio  et  effrenati  moderatio;  eadem  facultate  et  fraus  hominum 
ad  perniciem  et  integritas  ad  salutem  vocatur.  Quis  cohortari  ad 
virtutem  ardentius,  quis  a  vitiis  acrius  revocare,  quis  vituperare  ini- 
probos  asperius,  quis  laudare  bonos  ornatius,  quis  cupiditatem 
vehementius  f rangere  accusando  potest  ?  quis  maerorem  levare  mitius 


10     CICERO  S   INFLUENCE  UPON   AUGUSTINE  S   ORATORICAL  THEORY 

consolando?  Historia  vero  testis  tempo  rum,  lux  veritatis,  vita 
memoriae,  magistra  vitae,  nuntia  vetustatis,  qua  voce  alia  nisi 
oratoris  immortalitati  commendatur? 

From  these  passages  it  is  clear  that  Cicero  had  in  mind  a  stand- 
ard of  an  orator  to  which  it  is  impossible  to  attain ;  that  he  is  never 
to  be  perceived  with  eye  or  ear;  that  he  can  only  be  conceived  of 
ideally  by  the  mind ;  that  his  arena  is  the  forum ;  that  he  is  to  deal 
with  civil  cases ;  that  he  is  to  use  this  faculty  in  swaying  the  tumults 
of  the  people,  and  in  arousing  the  feelings  of  judges  and  the  dignity 
of  the  senate ;  that  he  is  to  assist  the  suppliant  and  the  afflicted,  ofifer 
security  from  danger,  maintain  the  civil  rights  of  men,  protect  him- 
self, defy  evil  men ;  that  he  is  to  rouse  the  languid,  calm  the  excited, 
bring  the  wickedness  of  mankind  to  destruction ;  to  exhort,  reprove, 
reclaim,  praise,  break  the  force  of  unlawful  passion  and  alleviate 
those  stricken  with  grief. 

We  are,  therefore,  justified  in  concluding  that  what  Augustine 
would  have  his  ecclesiastical  orator  do,  save  "preach  the  Word," 
is  to  be  found  in  Cicero's  conception  of  the  duties  of  his  ideal  orator ; 
that  he  said  in  terse  and  succinct  form,  though  dififering  in  phrase- 
ology from  that  of  Cicero,  what  Cicero  said  in  a  more  elaborate 
and  rhetorical  fashion,  and  that  his  ideal,  in  this  particular,  is,  in  all 
essential  respects,  the  same  as  the  ideal  of  Cicero. 

(3) 
(a)  The  Training  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Orator 

To  accomplish  that  which  the  foregoing  passages  impose  on  the 
orator,  it  is  necessary  that  the  ecclesiastical  orator  avail  himself  of 
all  the  arts  and  devices  with  which  the  orator  in  general  is  con- 
versant, and  that  he  study  Rhetoric. 

Rhetoric  is  the  common  ground  between  Augustine's  orator  and 
the  orator  of  Cicero.  Augustine,  therefore,  says  in  his  treatise, 
D.  D.  C.  IV,  2.  3  :^^  Nam  cum  per  artem  rhetoricam  et  vera  suadean- 
tur  et  falsa,  quis  audeat  dicere,  adversus  mendacium  in  defensoribus 
suis  inermem  debere  consistere  veritatem,  ut  videlicet  illi  qui  res 
falsas  persuadere  conantur,  noverint  auditorem  vel  benevolum,  vel 
intentum,  vel  docilem  prooemio  f acere ;  isti  autem  non  noverint?  illi 
falsa  breviter,  aperte,  verissimiliter ;  et  isti  vera  sic  narrent,  ut 
audire  taedeat,  intelligere  non  pateat,  credere  postremo  non  libeat? 

"On  this  passage  cf.  Norden's  Antike  Kunstprosa,  pp.  533  and  534. 


AUGUSTINE  S   IDEAL   ECCLESIASTICAL   ORATOR  II 

illi  fallacibus  argumentis  veritatem  oppugnent,  asserant  falsitatem ; 
isti  nee  vera  defendere,  nee  falsa  valeant  refutare?  illi  animos 
audientium  in  errorem  moventes  impellentesque  dieendo  terreant, 
contristent,  exhilarent,  exhortentur  ardenter;  isti  pro  veritate,  lenti 
frigidique  dormitent?  Quis  ita  desipiat,  ut  hoc  sapiat?  Cum  ergo 
sit  in  medio  posita  faeultas  eloquii,  quae  ad  persuadenda  seu  prava 
seu  recta  valet  plurimum :  cur  non  bonorum  studio  comparatur,  ut 
militet  veritati,  si  cam  mali  ad  obtinendas  perversas  vanasque  causas 
in  usus  iniquitatis  et  erroris  usurpant? 

It  is,  then,  by  the  proper  employment  of  rhetoric,  in  his  defense 
of  truth,  and  opposition  to  error  and  wrong,  that  the  ecclesiastical 
orator  is  to  put  his  hearers  in  a  friendly,  attentive  and  teachable 
frame  of  mind ;  he  must  not  be  tedious,  cumbersome  or  unpleasant 
to  hear,  but  on  the  contrary,  it  is  his  imperative  duty  to  make  his 
subject  as  attractive,  and  truth  as  forceful  as  possible.  As  his  op- 
ponents make  error  pleasing  and  difficult  to  resist,  so  must  he  defend 
truth  with  all  the  attractiveness  that  the  art  of  rhetoric  will  allow. 

(b)  The  Training  of  the  Legal  Orator 
^^'ere  it  necessary  in  the  face  of  Cicero's  own  rhetorical  train- 
ing and  general  writings  on  oratory  and  orators  to  mention  the  exact 
passage  wherein  rhetoric  is  declared  to  be  the  foundation  on  which 
oratory  rests,  reference  might  be  made  to  De  Inventione,  I,  5.  7. 
After  having  stated  how  men  of  earlier  times,  who  had  depended  on 
strength  of  body,  had  been  rescued  from  barbarous  conditions,  and 
had  made  for  themselves  customs,  institutions,  states  and  laws 
through  the  power  of  oratory  and  eloquence,  he  shows  by  what 
means  this  power  is  obtained.  To  quote  his  own  words  :  Ut  medici- 
nae  materiam  dicamus  morbos  ac  vulnera,  quod  in  his  omnis 
medicina  versetur,  item,  quibus  in  rebus  versatur  ars  et  faeultas 
oratoria,  eas  res  materiam  artis  rhetoricae  nominamus. 

Thus  we  see  that  Cicero  makes  rhetoric  a  great  essential  in 
the  education  of  the  orator. 

(4) 
When  and  How  the  Orator  is  to  Train  Himself 
To  attain   to  great  excellence  in  sacred  orator}^  the  rules  of  elo- 
quence should  be  mastered  in  youth,  and  quickly,  or  else  they  never 
will  be  thoroughly  learned.     Nam  et  ipsos  Romanae  principes  elo- 


12    CICERO  S   INFLUENCE  UPON  AUGUSTINE  S  ORATORICAL  THEORY 

quentiae  non  piguit  dicere  quod  banc  artem  nisi  quis  cito  possit, 
nunquam  omnino  possit  perdiscere.  {D.  D.  C.  IV,  3.  4.)  As  regards 
which  Cicero,  De  Orat.  Ill,  36.146,  had  said:  Turn  Caesar: 
Unum,  inquit,  me  ex  tuo  sermone  maxime,  Crasse,  commovit,  quod 
eum  negasti,  qui  non  cito  quid  didicisset  unquam  omnino  posse  per- 
discere. 

But  on  the  other  hand,  men  who  have  not  had  the  advantage  of 
rhetorical  training  in  youth,  who  are  of  a  quick  intellect  and  a  glow- 
ing temperament,  become  eloquent  more  readily  by  reading  eloquent 
speeches  and  listening  to  eloquent  men,  than  by  attending  to  the  rules 
of  eloquence.  Ouoniam  si  actum  et  fervens  adsit  ingenium,  facilius 
adhaeret  eloquentia  legentibus  et  audientibus  eloquentes,  quam 
eloquentiae  praecepta  sectantibus.  Nee  desunt  ecclesiasticae  litterae, 
etiam  praeter  canonem  in  auctoritatis  arce  salubriter  collocatuni, 
quas  legendo  homo  capax,  etsi  id  non  agat,  sed  tantummodo  rebus 
quae  ibi  dicuntur,  intentus  sit,  etiam  eloquio  quo  dicuntur,  dum  in  his 
versatur,  imbuitur;  accendete  vel  maxime  exercitatione  sive  scri- 
bendi,  sive  dictandi,  postremo  etiam  dicendi,  quae  secundum  pietatis 
ac  fidei  regulam  sentit.     (D.  D.  C.  IV,  3.  4.) 

That  these  conceptions  are  drawn  from  Cicero  is  evident  from 
the  following:  Sit  modo  is,  qui  dicet  aut  scribet,  institutus  liberaliter 
educatione  doctrinaque  puerili  et  flagret  studio  et  a  natura  adiuvetur 
et  in  universorum  generum  infinitis  disceptationibus  exercitatus 
ornatissimos  scriptores  oratoresque  ad  cognoscendum  imitandumque 
delegerit,  ne  ille  baud  sane,  quemadmodum  verba  struat  et  illuminet, 
a  magistris  istis  requiret.  Ita  facile  in  rerum  abundantia  ad  orationis 
ornamenta  sine  duce  natura  ipsa,  si  modo  est  exercitata,  delabitur. 
(De  Orat.  Ill,  31.  125.) 

(5) 
He  Must  Possess  Wisdom 

It  behooves  the  ecclesiastical  orator  to  speak  and  argue  with 
wisdom  even  though  it  be  without  eloquence,  since  he  is  under  the 
necessity,  first  of  all,  of  instructing  his  hearers.  Eloquent  nonsense 
is  to  be  avoided,  especially  when  his  hearers  are  pleased  with  it,  and 
who  think  that  since  the  speaker  is  eloquent  he  must  be  wise  also. 

Sed  cum  alii  f  aciant  obtuse,  deformiter,  f  rigide ;  alii  acute,  ornate, 
vehementer;  ilium  ad  hoc  opus  unde  agimus,  iam  oportet  accedere, 
qui  potest  disputare  vel  dicere  sapienter,  etiamsi  non  potest  elo- 


AUGUSTINE  S   IDEAL   ECCLESIASTICAL   ORATOR  I3 

quenter  ut  prosit  audicntibus,  ctiamsi  minus  quam  prodesset,  si  et 
eloquenter  posset  dicere.  Qui  vero  affluit  insipienti  eloquentia,  tanto 
magis  cavendus  est,  quanto  magis  ab  eo  in  iis  quae  audire  inutile 
est,  delectatur  auditor,  et  cum  quoniam  diserte  dicere  audit,  etiam 
vere  dicere  existimat.  Haec  autem  sententia  nee  illos  fugit,  qui  artem 
rhetoricam  docendam  putarunt :  fassi  sunt  enim  sapientiam  sine 
eloquentia  parum  prodesse  civitatibus ;  eloquentiam  vero  sine  sapi- 
entia  nimium  obesse  plerumque,  prodesse  nunquam.  Si  ergo  hoc 
illi  qui  praecepta  eloquentiae  tradiderunt,  in  eisdcm  libris  in  quibus 
id  egerunt,  veritate  instigante  coacti  sunt  confiteri,  veram,  hoc  est, 
supernam  quae  a  Patre  luminum  descendit,  sapientiam  nescientes; 
quanto  magis  nos  non  aliud  sentire  debemus,  qui  huius  sapientiae 
filii  et  ministri  sumus?    {D.  D.  C.  IV,  5.  7.) 

That  this  conception,  though  a  natural  one,  is  derived  from 
Cicero,  we  conclude  on  comparing  it  with  the  following:  Haec 
autem  oratio,  si  res  non  subest  ab  oratore  percepta  et  cognita,  aut 
nulla  sit  necesse  est  aut  omnium  irrisione  laudatur.  Quid  est  enim 
tam  furiosum,  quam  verborum  vel  optimorum  atque  ornatissimorum 
sonitus  inanis,  nulla  subiecta  sententia  nee  scientia?  {De  Orat. 
I,  12.  50.)  Again  in  53:  Quis  enim  nescit  maximam  vim  exsistere 
oratoris  in  hominum  mentibus  vel  ad  iram  aut  ad  odium  aut  ad 
dolorem  incitandis  vel  ab  hisce  iisdem  permotionibus  ad  lenitatem 
misericordiamque  revocandis?  Quae,  nisi  qui  naturas  hominum 
vimque  omnem  humanitatis  causasque  eas,  quibus  mentes  aut  incitan- 
tur  aut  reflectuntur,  penitus  perspexerit,  dicendo  quod  volet  perficere 
non  poterit. 

(6) 
Kind  of  Wisdom  Necessary  for  the  Orator 

Now  to  speak  with  wisdom,  though  it  be  without  eloquence,  the 
ecclesiastic  orator  should  retain  the  exact  words  of  Scripture  in  his 
memory,  as  well  as  a  deep  knowledge  of  their  meaning,  for  in  this 
way  it  is  possible  to  add  a  richness  to  his  speech,  which,  though 
otherwise  poor,  will  give  it  a  pleasant  effect  in  the  minds  of  his 
hearers.  Augustine  in  treating  this  phase  of  the  subject,  in  D.  D.  C. 
IV,  5.  8,  says :  Huic  ergo  qui  sapienter  debet  dicere,  etiam  quod 
non  potest  eloquenter,  verba  Scripturarum  tenere  maxime  neces- 
sarium  est.  Quanto  enim  se  pauperiorem  cernit  in  suis,  tanto  eum 
oportet  in  istis  esse  ditiorem ;  ut  quod  dixerit  suis  verbis,  probet 


14    CICERO's   INFLUENCE  UPON   AUGUSTINE's   ORATORICAL   THEORY 

ex  ilHs,  et  qui  propriis  verbis  minor  erat,  magnorum  testimonio 
quodammodo  crescat. 

Corresponding  to  Scripture^'*  for  the  ecclesiastical  orator  is  phi- 
losophy, or  res,  for  the  ideal  orator  of  Cicero.  As  regards  his  intel- 
lectual equipment,  Cicero  says,  that,  to  the  end  that  his  ideal  orator 
may  be  fully  equipped  with  the  proper  knowledge  on  general  matters 
as  well  as  with  a  technical  knowledge  of  the  specific  subject  which 
he  at  any  time  may  be  treating,  he  must  provide  himself  with  certain 
"topics"  which  come  under  the  domain  of  philosophy. 

Referring  to  the  highest  powers  of  the  orator  as  consisting  in 
exciting  the  minds  of  men  to  anger,  hatred  or  grief ;  or  in  recalling 
them  from  these  more  violent  emotions  to  gentleness  and  pity,  a 
thing  which  he  will  never  accomplish  by  eloquence  unless  he  has 
obtained  a  thorough  insight  into  the  nature  of  humanity,  and  under- 
stands how  the  minds  of  men  are  moved  or  restrained,  Cicero  says, 
De  Orat.  I,  12.  54;  Atque  totus  hie  locus  philosophorum  proprius 
videtur  neque  orator  me  auctore  unquam  repugnabit. 

Of  "topics,"  or  loci,  he  says  again  in  De  Orat.  I,  13.56:  Et 
enim  quom  illi  in  dicendo  inciderint  loci,  quod  persaepe  evenit,  ut 
de  dis  immortalibus,  de  pietate,  de  concordia,  de  amicitia,  de 
communi  civium,  de  hominum,  de  gentium  iure,  de  aequitate,  de  tem- 
perantia,  de  magnitudine  animi,  de  omni  virtutis  genere  sit  dicen- 
dum,  clamabunt,  credo,  omnia  g}Tnnasia  atque  omnes  philosophorum 
scholae  sua  esse  haec  omnia  propria,  nihil  omnino  ad  oratorem  per- 
tinere. 

It  is,  therefore,  clear  that  Cicero's  ideal  orator  must  be  equipped 
with  philosophy  as  well  as  with  rhetoric,  which  thus  affords  the 
parallel  to  the  Scriptures,  a  thorough  knowledge  of  which  Augus- 
tine's ecclesiastical  orator  must  possess. 

(7) 

General  Rules  for  the  Orator 

(a)     He  Should  Read  Eloquent  Speeches  and  Listen  to 

Eloquent  Men 

Let  the  ecclesiastical  orator,  who  would  speak  with  both  wisdom 

and  eloquence,  read  eloquent  speeches,  and  listen  to  the  speeches 

of  eloquent   men,    rather  than   spend   time   with   the   teachers   of 

"  See  note  3,  page  2. 


Augustine's  ideal  ecclesiastical  orator  15 

rhetoric.  Porro  qui  non  solum  sapienter,  verum  etiam  eloquenter 
vult  dicere,  quoniam  prof ecto  plus  proderit,  si  utrumque  potuerit ; 
ad  legendos  vel  audiendos  et  exercitatione  imitandos  eloquentes  eum 
mitto  libentius,  quam  magistris  artis  rhetoricae  vacare  praecipio. 

(£».  D.  CIV,  5-8-) 

Regarding  the  same  principle,  Cicero  says,  De  Orat.  IT,  20.85: 
Ouare  ego  tibi  oratorem  sic  iam  instituam,  si  potero,  ut  quid  efficere 
possit  ante  perspiciam.  Sit  enim  mihi  tinctus  litteris ;  audierit 
aliquid,  legerit,  ista  ipsa  praecepta  acceperit :  temptabo  quid  deceat, 
quid  voce,  quid  viribus,  quid  spiritu,  quid  lingua  efficere  possit.  ^y- 

(b)  He  Should  Practice  Himself  in  Writing  ^ 
In  addition  to  listening  to  eloquent  men,  and  reading  eloquent 

speeches,  let  the  ecclesiastical  orator  develop  himself  by  writing 
and  dictating:  accendete  vel  maxime  exercitatione  sive  scribendi, 
sive  dictandi,  postremo  etiam  dicendi,  quae  secundum  pietatis  ac 
fidei  regulam  sentit.     (D.  D.  C.  IV,  3.  4-) 

With  reference  to  which,  Cicero,  De  Orat.  II,  23.96,  says :  Hanc 
igitur  similitudinem  qui  imitatione  adsequi  volet,  quom  exercita- 
tionibus  crebris  atque  magnis  turn  scribendo  maxume  persequatur.      ^ 

(c)  He  Should  Choose  a  Model  to  Imitate 

As  infants  learn  to  speak  by  imitating  the  speech  of  those  they 
hear,  so  by  imitating  a  great  speaker  will  the  ecclesiastical  orator 
become  eloquent.  Ouapropter,  cum  ex  infantibus  loquentes  non 
fiant,  nisi  locutiones~discendo  loquentium;  cur  eloquentes  fieri  non 
possint,  nulla  eloquendi  arte  tradita,  sed  elocutiones  eloquentium 
legendo    et    audiendo,    et    quantum   assequi    conceditur,    imitando? 

{D.D.  CIV,  3.5-) 

On  the  principle  of  imitation,  Cicero,  De  Orat.  II,  22.90,  says: 
Ergo  hoc  sit  primum  in  praeceptis  meis,  ut  demonstremus  quern 
imitetur  atque  ita  ut.  quae  maxume  excellent  in  eo,  quem  imitabitur, 
ea  diligentissime  persequatur.  Tum  accedat  exercitatio,  qua  ilium 
quem  delegerit  imitando  effingat  atque  exprimat. 

From  the  above  citations  it  appears  that  as  Cicero  would  have 
his  ideal  orator  listen  to  eloquent  speakers,  and  read  the  productions 
of  eloquent  men ;  that  as  he  would  have  him  practice  himself  in 
writing  and  dictation;  and,  finally,  that  as  he  would  have  him 
choose  one  or  more  eminent  orators  to  imitate,  so  would  Augustme 
have  his  ecclesiastical  orator  train  himself. 


III.     THE  OFFICES  OF  THE  ECCLESIASTICAL  ORATOR 

After  having  treated  of  the  ecclesiastical  orator  in  the  manner 
as  shown  in  the  preceding  chapter,  Augustine  proceeds  to  discuss 
the  specific  duties  of  the  orator.  His  moral  character,  his  educa- 
tion in  general,  his  study  of  rhetoric  in  early  youth,  his  store  of 
wisdom,  his  mastery  of  the  general  laws  of  eloquence,  must  all  be 
directed  to  a  specific  purpose  if  he  would  not  be  foredoomed  to  a 
speedy  and  ignominious  failure.  In  accordance  with  Cicero,  he 
assigns  to  the  ecclesiastical  orator  three  main  offices,  which,  at  the 
same  time,  are  both  natural  and  psychological.  They  are  natural 
because  they  make  the  function  of  the  orator  commensurate  with 
the  mental  possibilities  of  man,  and  they  are  pyschological  because 
each  specific  duty  of  the  orator  is  adapted  to  a  special  faculty  of 
the  human  mind.  These  three  offices  are,  (i)  to  instruct;  (2)  to 
please;  (3)  to  move;  and  their  natural  and  legitimate  spheres  of 
action  are  in  the  regions,  (i)  of  the  intellect;  (2)  of  the  sensibili- 
ties; (3)  of  the  will,  respectively.  To  instruct  is  of  the  intellect, 
to  arouse  or  soothe  the  emotions,  to  move  the  will  is  the  orator's  part 
of  the  program  in  dealing  with  humanity,  as  seen  by  both  Cicero 
and  Augustine.  To  reach  the  standard  of  excellence  in  the  art  of 
speaking,  wherein  the  skill  of  the  orator  appeals  with  equal  force 
to  the  soul  of  man,  through  any  or  all  of  these  avenues,  is  to  be  a 
great  orator ;  while  to  stir  men  to  frenzy,  or  to  arouse  them  to  action 
even  against  their  wills,  is  the  problem  of  a  Demosthenes  or  a 
Savonarola,  a  Cicero  or  a  Spurgeon. 

As  regards  these  offices  of  the  ecclesiastical  orator,  Augustine, 
D.  D.  C.  IV,  12.  27,  says :  Dixit  ergo  quidam  eloquens,  et  verum 
dixit,  ita  dicere  debere  eloquentem,  ut  doceat,  ut  delectet,  ut  flectat. 

This  three-fold  function  of  the  orator,  he  specifically  states,  was 
so  defined  by  Cicero,  who,  in  the  Orator,  21.  69,  says:  Erit  igitur 
eloquens — hunc  enim,  auctore  Antonio  quaerimus — is,  qui  in  foro 
causisque  civilibus  ita  dicet,  ut  probet,  ut  delectet,  ut  flectat.  Probare 
necessitatis  est,  delectare  suavitatis,  flectere  victoriae :  nam  id  unum 
ex  omnibus  ad  obtinendas  causas  potest  plurimum.  Sed  quot  officia 
oratoris,  tot  sunt  genera  dicendi :  subtile  in  probando,  modicum  in 
delectando,  vehemens  in  flectendo ;  in  quo  uno  vis  oninis  oratoris  est. 
It  will  be  observed  here  that  Augustine  does  not  quote  Cicero  cor- 


THE  OFFICES  OF  THE  ECCLESIASTICAL  ORATOR  17 

rectly,  in  that  he  substitutes  doceat  for  probet,  though  he  does  no 
violence  to  the  thought  of  Cicero  as  is  seen  in  the  following  ex- 
amples : 

1.  De  Orat.  II,  27.  115:  Ita  omnis  ratio  dicendi  tribus  ad  per- 
suadendum  rebus  est  nixa :  ut  probemus  vera  esse,  quae  defendimus ; 
ut  conciliemus  eos  nobis,  qui  audiunt ;  ut  animos  eorum,  ad  quem- 
quomque  causa  postulabit  motum,  vocemus. 

2.  De  Orat.  II,  28.  121  :  Quibus  ex  locis  ad  eas  tres  res,  quae 
ad  fidem  faciendam  solae  valent,  ducatur  oratio,  ut  et  concilientur 
animi  et  doceantur  et  moveantur. 

3.  De  Orat.  II,  yy.  310:  Tribus  rebus  homines  ad  nostram  sen- 
tentiam  perducimus,  aut  docendo  aut  conciliando  aut  permovendo. 

4.  Brutus,  49.  185 :  Tria  sunt  enim,  ut  quidem  ego  sentio  quae 
sint  efficienda  dicendo :  ut  doceatur  is,  apud  quem  dicetur,  ut  de- 
lectetur,  ut  moveatur  vehementius. 

5.  De  Opt.  Gen.  i.  3:  Optumus  est  enim  orator,  qui  dicendo 
animos  audientium  et  docet  et  delectat  et  permovet.  Docere  debitum 
est,  delectare  honorarium,  permovere  necessarium. 

6.  De  Opt.  Gen.  5.  16:  Necesse  est  tamen  oratori,  quem  quaeri- 
mus,  controversias  explicare  forenses  dicendi  genere  apto  ad  docen- 
dum,  ad  delectandum,  ad  permovendum. 

From  these  passages,  therefore,  it  is  clear  that  Augustine's  con- 
ception of  the  ecclesiastical  orator  is  the  same  as  that  of  Cicero 
regarding  his  ideal  orator,  that  is  (i)  to  teach,  (2)  to  delight, 
(3)  to  persuade. 


IV.     DERIVATION  OF  THE  THREE  STYLES 
OF  ORATORY 

From  the  three  offices  of  the  orator,  that  of  teaching,  delighting 
and  persuading,  which,  as  has  been  pointed  out,  operate  on  the 
intellect,  the  sensibilities  and  the  will,  respectively,  there  are 
naturally  developed  three  styles^  of  oratory,  psychologically  adapted 
to  these  offices,  which  may  be  called  the  Plain,  the  Middle,  and  the 
Grand  Styles,  whose  nomenclature  in  the  original  Augustine  derives 
from  Cicero.  In  D.  D.  C.  IV,  17.  34,  there  is  the  following  language : 
Qui  ergo  nititur  dicendo  persuadere  quod  bonum  est,  nihil  horum 
trium  spernens,  ut  scilicet  doceat,  ut  delectet,  ut  flectat;  oret  atque 
agat,  ut  quemadmodum  supra  diximus,  intelligenter,  libenter, 
obedienterque  audiatur.  Quod  cum  apte  et  convenienter  facit,  non 
immerito  eloquens  dici  potest,  etsi  non  eum  sequatur  auditoris 
assensus.  Ad  haec  enim  tria,  id  est  ut  doceat,  ut  delectet,  ut  flectat, 
etiam  tria  ilia  videtur  pertinere  voluisse  idem  ipse  Romani  auctor 
eloquii,  cum  itidem  dixit,  "Is  igitur  erit  eloquens,  qui  poterit  parva 
submisse,  modica  temperate,  magna  granditer  dicere"  {Orat. 
29.  loi.)  :  tanquam  si  adderet  ilia  etiam  tria,  et  sic  explicaret  unam 
eandemque  sententiam  dicens,  is  erit  igitur  eloquens,  qui  ut  doceat, 
poterit  pan^a  submisse;  ut  delectet,  modica  temperate;  ut  flectat, 
magna  granditer  dicere. 

Then,  it  is  seen  that  from  the  three  adverbs  used  by  Cicero,  that 
is,  submisse,  temperate,  and  granditer,  Augustine  derives  the  names 
of  his  three  styles,  (i)  Submissa  dictio;  (2)  Temperata  dictio; 
(3)  Grandis  dictio. 

^  See  Norden's  Antike  Kunstprosa,  p.  617,  who  states  that  Augustine 
followed  Cicero  in  the  matter  of  the  three  styles. 


V.  THE  PLAIN  STYLE,  OR  SUBMISSA  DICTIO 
Following  the  accepted  lines  of  argument,  Augustine  shows  that 
the  first  and  fundamental  principle  of  the  Submissa  Dictio  is  to 
mstruct  the  hearer,  to  explain  that  which  is  obscure,  and  to  satisfy 
the  demands  of  his  intellect  by  an  exposition  of  the  truth.  To  this 
end  the  ecclesiastical  orator  should  ever  be  mindful  of  the  obliga- 
tions he  has  assumed,  and  should  guard  against  supposing  that 
teaching  consists  in  inaking  his  hearers  like  that  which  they  had 
formerly  disliked,  or  in  making  them  do  what  they  had  previously 
refused  to  do.  Teaching  depends  upon  the  subject  matter,  and  the 
orator  should  be  clear  and  intelligible  at  all  points  if  he  would  be 
understood. 

Therefore,  teaching  must  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  most  critical 
intellects,  and  display  the  truth  in  whatever  aspect  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  instruct  the  hearer.  Yet  it  is  not  inadmissible  for  the 
didactic  style  of  eloquence  to  receive  a  most  exquisite  literary  polish. 
On  the  contrary,  it  is  as  capable  of  a  literary  finish  as  any  other 
department  of  oratory,  and  should  never  degenerate  into  a  rude  and 
unfinished  form,  that  its  influence  may  extend  beyond  the  small 
circle  of  eager  students  w'ho  accept  truth  for  its  own  sake,  regard- 
less of  its  literary  form  or  setting.  In  D.  D.  C.  IV,  ii.  26.  Augustine 
says :  Prorsus  haec  est  in  docendo  eloquentia,  qua  fit  dicendo,  non 
ut  libeat  quod  horrebat,  aut  ut  fiat  quod  pigebat,  sed  ut  appareat 
quod  latebat. 

As  regards  the  offices  of  the  orator,  Augustine,  on  teaching,  in 
D.  D.  C.  IV,  12.27,  says:  Horum  trium  quod  primo  loco  positum 
est,  hoc  est  docendi  necessitas,  in  rebus  est  constituta  quas  dicimus ; 
reliqua  duo,  in  modo  quo  dicimus.  Qui  ergo  dicit  cum  docere  vult, 
quamdiu  non  intelligetur,  nondum  se  existimet  dixisse  quod  vult, 
ei  quern  vult  docere.  Quia  etsi  dixit  quod  ipse  intelligit,  nondum 
illi  dixisse  putandus  est,  a  quo  intellectus  non  est ;  si  vero  intellectus 
est,  quocumque  modo  dixerit,  dixit. 

It  is,  therefore,  evident  that,  before  the  ecclesiastical  orator 
should  endeavor  to  move  his  hearers,  they  should  be  taught  what 
is  the  proper  course  to  pursue,  and  that  accordingly  docere  necessi- 
tatis est.  For  this  reason  it  is  not,  primarily,  the  intention  of  the 
Plain  Style  to  please,  with  the  ornamentations  of  language,  but  to 


20    CICERO  S   INFLUENCE  UPON   AUGUSTINE  S  ORATORICAL  THEORY 

present  truth  which  may  indeed  be  pleasing  because  it  is  truth. 
In  hke  manner,  falsehood  often  becomes  a  source  of  pleasure  in  the 
process  of  teaching,  not  because  it  is  false,  but  because  by  true  teach- 
ing it  is  shown  to  be  false/  (D.  D.  C.  IV,  12.  28.)  And  further- 
more, by  the  Plain  Style  is  meant  the  simplicity  of  the  language  in 
which  the  thought  is  clothed,  and  the  term  does  not  apply  to  the 
thought  which  may  be  exceedingly  difficult,  as  for  example,  Paul's 
exposition  of  the  law  {D.  D.  C.  IV,  20.  39),  but  to  the  phraseology, 
which  must  be  purely  didactic,  and  as  far  as  possible,  devoid  of 
rhetorical  ornament. 

As  regards  simplicity  of  treatment  being  the  essential  charac- 
teristic of  the  Plain  Style  the  following  citations  are  noted : 

1.  De  Orat.  II,  43.  183  :  Non  enim  semper  fortis  oratio  quaeri- 
tur,  sed  saepe  placida,  summissa,  lenis,  quae  maxime  commendat 
reos.  Reos  autem  appello  non  eos  modo,  qui  arguuntur,  sed  omnes, 
quorum  de  re  disceptatur. 

2.  Orator,  5.  20:  Et  contra  tenues,  acuti,  omnia  docentes  et 
dilucidiora,  non  ampliora  facientes,  subtili  quadam  et  pressa  ora- 
tione  limati. 

3.  Orator,  8.26:  Itaque  hie,  quem  praestitisse  diximus  ceteris, 
in  ilia  pro  Ctesiphonte  oratione  longe  optima  summissius  a  primo, 
(est). 

^D.  D.  C.  IV,  12.28:  Sed  neque  delectare  necessitatis  est:  quandoquidem 
cum  dicendo  vera  monstrantur,  quod  ad  officium  docendi  pertinet,  non 
eloquio  agitur,  neque  hoc  attenditur,  ut  vel  ipsa  vel  ipsum  delectet  eloquium, 
sed  per  se  ipsa,  quoniam  vera  sunt,  manifestata  delectant.  Unde  plerumque 
delectant  etiam  falsa  patefacta  atque  convicta.  Neque  enim  delectant,  quia 
falsa  sunt;  sed  quia  falsa  esse  verum  est,  delectat  et  dictio  qua  hoc  verum  esse 
monstratum  est. 


VI.     THE  MIDDLE  STYLE,  OR  TEMPERATA  DICTIO 

The  Temperate  Style  is  the  style  best  adapted  to  conciliate  and 
delight,  and  abounds  more  in  the  figures  of  speech  and  of  thought 
than  the  Plain  Style,  and  is  yet  not  so  vehement  and  powerful  in 
its  nature  as  the  Grand  Style.  Its  object  is  to  stir  the  aesthetic 
emotions  by  a  felicitous  arrangement  of  words,  figures  of  speech 
and  of  thought,  thus  putting  the  hearer  in  a  kindly  feeling  towards 
the  speaker,  so  that  he  may  be  more  easily  moved,  if  it  be  the 
object  of  the  speaker  to  arouse  to  action.  Cicero  defines  it  in  the 
Orator,  section  96,  in  the  following  manner:  Est  enim  quoddam 
etiam  insigne  et  florens  orationis  pictum  et  expolitum  genus,  in  quo 
omnes  verborum,  omnes  sententiarum  illigantur  lepores. 

Augustine,  D.  D.  C.  IV,  12.  27,  as  regards  this  style  says :  Si  vero 
(orator)  intellectus  est,  quocumque  modo  dixerit,  dixit.  Quod  si 
etiam  delectare  vult  eum  cui  dicit,  aut  flectere,  non  quocumque 
modo  dixerit,  faciet :  sed  interest  quomodo  dicat,  ut  faciat.  Sicut 
est  autem,  ut  teneatur  ad  audiendum,  delectandus  auditor;  ita  flec- 
tendus,  ut  moveatur  ad  agendum.  The  hearer,  then,  must  be 
pleased  before  his  attention  can  be  secured,  and  for  this  purpose 
there  is  need  of  both  sweetness  and  elegance  of  speech.  An  exami- 
nation of  the  following  passages  from  Cicero  will  reveal  the  fact 
that  Augustine  drew,  for  this  conception  also,  upon  Cicero. 

I.  Orator,  6.  21:  Est  autem  quidam  interiectus  inter  hos  medius 
et  quasi  temperatus  nee  acumine  posteriorum  nee  fulmine  utens 
superiorum,  vicinus  amborum,  in  neutro  excellens,  utriusque  parti- 
ceps,  vel  utriusque,  si  verum  quaerimus,  potius  expers.  Isque  uno 
tenore,  ut  aiunt,  fluit  in  dicendo  nihil  adferens  praeter  facilitatem 
et  aequabilitatem,  aut  addit  aliquos  ut  in  corona  toros  omnemque 
orationem  ornamentis  modicis  verborum  sententiarumque  distinguit. 

2.  Orator,  26. 91  :  Hoc  in  genere  nervorum  vel  minimum, 
suavitatis  autem  est  vel  plurimum.  Est  enim  plenius  quam  hoc 
enucleatum,  quam  autem  illud  ornatum  copiosumque  summissius. 

3.  Orator,  27.  95 :  In  idem  genus  orationis — verborum  cadunt 
lumina  omnia,  multa  etiam  sententiarum ;  latae  eruditaeque  dispu- 
tationes  ab  eodem  explicabuntur  et  loci  communes  sine  contentione 
dicentur. 


VII.     THE  GRAND  STYLE,  OR  GRANDIS  DICTIO 

The  object  of  the  Grand  Style  is  to  move  men,  either  to  do,  or 
to  refrain  from  doing  something.  The  teachings  of  the  ecclesiastical 
orator  are  in  vain  and  the  pleasures  of  his  eloquence  of  no  per- 
manent value  if  the  hearer  be  not  led  to  carry  out  in  practice  the 
things  which  he  has  been  taught,  and  for  which  both  the  teaching 
and  the  art  of  pleasing  were  brought  into  play.  The  eloquent  divine 
must  not  only  teach  that  he  be  understood  and  speak  to  give  delight, 
but  he  must  also  move  those  who  hear.  If  truth  of  itself  cannot 
do  this,  if  it  fail  when  reinforced  by  the  arts  that  delight  the 
aesthetic  nature,  then  nothing  remains  but  to  subdue  the  obdurate 
heart  with  the  conquering  power  of  eloquence.  All  the  ornaments 
of  speech  and  thought,  provided  they  do  not  weaken  the  force  of 
eloquence,  can  be  utilized.  It  is  assumed  that  the  hearer  is  in- 
structed, that  he  has  been  conciliated  to  the  speaker,  and  therefore 
the  Grandis  Dictio  leaps  beyond  the  barriers  imposed  by  didactics, 
refuses  to  be  limited  by  the  confines  of  merely  intellectual  and 
aesthetic  delight,  and  is  content  with  nothing  short  of  the  entire 
region  of  the  human  soul,  where  all  its  faculties  can  be  touched, 
— love,  hate,  joy,  sorrow,  hope,  fear,  in  short,  where  the  soul  in  all 
N  its  fulness  can  be  assaulted,  and  where  the  will  must  be  taken 
captive. 

In  D.  D.  C.  IV,  13.  29,  Augustine  thus  expresses  himself:  Prop- 
ter eos  autem  quibus  fastidientibus  non  placet  Veritas,  si  alio  quae- 
cumque  modo,  nisi  eo  modo  dicatur,  ut  placeat  et  sermo  dicentis, 
datus  est  in  eloquentia  non  parvus  etiam  delectationi  locus.  Quae 
tamen  addita  non  sufficit  duris,  quos  nee  intellexisse,  nee  docentis 
elocutione  delectatos  esse  profuerit.  Quid  enim  haec  duo  conferunt 
homini,  qui  et  confitetur  verum,  et  collaudat  eloquium,  nee  inclinat 
assensum,  propter  quern  solum,  cum  aliquid  suadetur,  rebus  quae 
dicuntur  invigilat  dicentis  intentio?  Si  enim  talia  docentur  quae 
credere  vel  nosse  sufficiat,  nihil  est  aliud  eis  consentire,  nisi 
confiteri  vera  esse.  Cum  vero  id  docetur  quod  agendum  est 
et  ideo  docetur  ut  agatur,  frustra  persuadetur  verum  esse  quod 
dicitur,  frustra  placet  modus  ipse  quo  dicitur,  si  non  ita  discitur  ut 
agatur.  Oportet  igitur  eloquentem  ecclesiasticum,  quando  suadet 
aliquid  quod  agendum  est,  non  solum  docere  ut  instruat,  et  delectare 


THE  GRAND  STYLE,  OR  GRANDIS  DICTIO  23 

ut  teneat,  verum  etiam  flectere  ut  viiicat.  Ipse  quippe  iam  remanet 
ad  consensionem  flectendus  eloquentiae  granditate,  in  quo  id  non 
egit  usque  ad  ejus  confessionem  demonstrata  Veritas,  adjuncta  etiam 
suavitate  dictionis. 

With  this  conception  Cicero  is  in  perfect  harmony.  In  De  Orat. 
II,  82.  337,  he  says:  Et  quamquam  una  fere  vis  est  eloquentiae,  ta- 
men  quia  summa  dignitas  est  populi.  gravissima  causa  rei  publicae, 
maximi  motus  multitudinis,  genus  quoque.  dicendi  grandius  quoddam 
et  illustrius  esse  adhibenduni  videtur;  maximaque  pars  orationis 
admovenda  est  ad  animorum  motus  nonnumquam  aut  cohortatione 
aut  commemoratione  aliqua  aut  in  spem  aut  in  metum  aut  ad 
cupiditatem  aut  ad  gloriam  concitandos,  saepe  etiam  a  temeritate, 
iracundia,  spe,  iniuria,  invidia.  crudeHtate  revocandos. 

Again  in  Orator,  28.  97:  Tertius  est  ille  amplus  copiosus,  gravis 
ornatus,  in  quo  profecto  vis  maxima  est.  Hie  est  enim,  cuius 
ornatum  dicendi  et  copiam  admiratae  gentes  eloquentiam  in  civi- 
tatibus  plurimum  valere  passae  sunt,  sed  banc  eloquentiam,  quae 
cursu  magno  sonituque  ferretur,  quam  suspicerent  omnes,  quam 
admirarentur,  quam  se  adsequi  posse  diffiderent.  Huius  eloquentiae 
est  tractare  animos,  huius  omni  modo  permovere.  Haec  modo  per- 
fringit,  modo  irrepit  in  sensus ;  inserit  novas  opiniones,  evellit 
insitas. 


VIII.     COMBINATION  OF  THE  THREE  STYLES 

The  ecclesiastical  orator  ought  not  always  to  teach  in  the  Plain 
Style,  or  give  praise  in  the  Temperate  Style,  or  speak  of  great  mat- 
ters, continually,  in  the  Grand  Style.  When  the  orator  is  treating 
his  theme  he  must  be  guided  by  his  judgment,  and  it  often  occurs 
that  an  important  matter  may  be  treated  in  all  these  styles  at  differ- 
ent times.  There  is  no  subject  greater  than  God,  and  the  orator 
can  tax  his  abilities  to  the  utmost  in  speaking  either  of  Him  or  of 
His  works ;  yet  when  something  is  to  be  learned  about  Him  or  the 
Holy  Trinity,  it  is  highly  improper  to  use  any  style  save  the  method 
of  calm  discussion,  so  that  a  subject  which  in  itself  is  difficult  of 
comprehension  may  be  the  more  easily  understood.  In  D.  D.  C.  IV, 
19.  38,  Augustine  says :  Et  tamen  cum  doctor  iste  debeat  rerum 
dictor  esse  magnarum,  non  semper  eas  debet  granditer  dicere,  sed 
submisse,  cum  aliquid  docetur;  temperate,  cum  aliquid  vituperatur 
sive  laudatur:  cum  vero  aliquid  agendum  est,  et  ad  eos  loquimur, 
qui  hoc  agere  debent,  nee  tamen  volunt,  tunc  ea  quae  magna  sunt, 
dicenda  sunt  granditer,  et  ad  flectendos  animos  congruenter.  Et 
aliquando  de  una  eademque  re  magna,  et  submisse  dicitur,  si  doce- 
tur ;  et  temperate,  si  praedicatur ;  et  granditer,  si  aversus  inde 
animus  ut  convertatur  impellitur,  quid  enim  Deo  ipso  majus  est? 
Nunquid  ideo  non  discitur?  Aut  qui  docet  unitatem  Trinitatis, 
debet  nisi  submissa  disputatione  agere,  ut  res  ad  dignoscendum 
difficilis,  quantum  datur,  possit  intelligi?  Numquid  hie  ornamenta, 
et  non  documenta  quaeruntur?  numquid  ut  aliquid  agat  est  flec- 
tendus  auditor,  et  non  potius  ut  discat  instruendus?  Porro  cum- 
laudatur  Deus  sive  de  seipso,  sive  de  operibus  suis,  quanta  facies 
pulchrae  ac  splendidae  dictionis  oboritur  ei  qui  potest  quantum 
potest  laudare,  quem  nemo  convenienter  laudat,  nemo  quomodo- 
cumque  non  laudat !  At  si  non  colatur,  aut  cum  illo  vel  etiam  prae 
illo  colantur  idola,  sive  daemonia  sive  quaecumque  creatura ;  quan- 
tum hoc  malum  sit,  atque  ut  ab  hoc  malo  avertantur  homines,  debet 
utique  granditer  dici. 

We  are,  therefore,  not  to  suppose  that  it  is  improper  to  combine 
these  various  styles,  but  on  the  contrary,  every  variety  should  be 
introduced  so  far  as  may  be  consistent  with  good  taste.  When  the 
orator  keeps  monotonously  to  any  one  style,  he  fails  to  hold  the 


COMBINATION   OF  THE   THREE  STYLES  2$ 

hearer's  attention,  but  passing  from  one  style  to  the  other,  the  dis- 
course proceeds  more  gracefully  and  can  thus  be  extended  to  a  p/ 
much  greater  length.     If  any  one  style  must  be  used  above  the  rest, 
let  it  be  the  PlalnStyle,  for  the  mental  emotion  necessary  to  accom-     .  / 
pany  the  Grand  Style  cannot  be  maintained  very  long.    The  orator, 
therefore,  must  be  on  his  guard,  lest,  when  he  shall  have  carried 
his  hearers  to  a  high  pitch  of  emotion,  he  lose  the  effect  he  has 
already  gained.    On  this  point,  Augustine,  D.  D.  C.  IV,  22.  51,  thus 
says  :    Nee  quisquam  praeter  disciplinam  esse  existimet  ita  miscere  : 
imo  quantum  congrue  fieri  potest,  omnibus  generibus  dictio  varianda 
est.     Nam  quando  prolixa  est  in  uno  genere,  minus  detinet  audi- 
torem.     Cum  vero  fit  in  aliud  ab  alio  transitus,  etiamsi  longius  eat, 
decentius    procedit    oratio:     quamvis    habeant    et    singula    genera 
varietates  suas  in  sermone  eloquentium,  quibus  non  sinuntur  in  eorum 
qui  audiunt,  frigescere  vel  tepescere  sensibus.    Verum  tamen  facilius 
submissum  solum,  quam  solum  grande  diutius  tolerari  potest.    Com- 
motio quippe  animi  quanto  magis  excitanda  est,  ut  nobis  assentiatur 
auditor,  tanto  minus  in  ea  diu  teneri  potest,  cum  fuerit  quantum 
satis  est  excitata.     Et  ideo  cavendum  est,  ne  dum  volumus  altius 
erigere  quod  erectum  est,  etiam  inde  decidat,  quo  fuerat  excitatione 
perductum.     Interpositis  vero  quae  sunt  dicenda  submissius,  bene 
reditur  ad  ea  quae  opus  est  granditer  dici,   ut  dictionis  impetus 
sicut  maris  aestus  alternet.     Ex  quo  fit  ut  grande  dicendi  genus,  si 
diutius  est  dicendum,  non  debeat  esse  solum,  sed  aliorum  generum 
interpositione  varietur ;    ei  tamen  generi  dictio  tota  tribuitur,  cuius 
copia  praevaluerit. 

To  determine  what  style  should  be  alternated  with  what  other,  and  / 

the  place  where  any  particular  style  should  be  employed,  is  a  matter  '^/  v 
of  vital  importance.  For  instance,  the  introduction  to  the  majestic 
style  should  be  temperate.  Yet  the  orator  can  use  his  discretion, 
and,  it  may  be,  employ  the  subdued  style,  in  order  that  the  majestic 
may  be  the  grander  by  comparison,  and  shine  with  more  brilliancy,  as 
it  were,  from  a  dark  background.  \\'henever  difficult  questions 
arise,  there  must  be  an  accuracy  of  distinction,  and  this  must  always 
be  in  the  subdued  style.  This  style  must,  therefore,  be  alternated 
with  the  other  two  styles  whenever  questions  of  this  kind  arise. 
There  should  be  a  judicious  blending  of  the  various  styles  as  occasion  ^•' 
may  demand,  in  order  to  secure  the  best  results. 


26    CICERO's   INFLUENCE  UPON  AUGUSTINE's  ORATORICAL   THEORY 

Interest  enim  quod  genus  cui  generi  interponatur,  vel  adhibeatur, 
certis  et  necessariis  locis.  Nam  et  in  grandi  genere  semper  aut  paene 
semper  temperata  decet  esse  principia.  Et  in  potestate  est  eloquentis 
ut  dicantur  non  ulla  submisse,  etiam  quae  possent  granditer  dici ;  ut 
ea  quae  dicuntur  granditer,  ex  illorum  fiant  comparatione  grandiora, 
et  eorum  tanquam  umbris  luminosiora  reddantur.  In  quocumque 
autem  genere  aliqua  quaestionum  vincula  solvenda  sunt,  acumine 
opus  est,  quod  sibi  submissum  genus  proprie  vindicat.  Ac  per  hoc 
eo  genere  utendum  est  et  in  aliis  duobus  generibus,  quando  eis  ista 
incidunt ;  sicut  laudandum  aliquid  vel  vituperandum,  ubi  nee  dam- 
natio  cujusquam  nee  liberatio,  nee  ad  actionem  quamlibet  assensio  re- 
quiritur,  in  quocumque  alio  genere  occurrerit,  genus  adhibendum  et 
interponendum  est  temperatum.  In  grandi  ergo  genere  inveniunt 
locos  suos  duo  cetera,  et  in  submisso  similiter.  Temperatum  autem 
genus  non  quidem  semper,  sed  tamen  aliquando  submisso  indiget,  si, 
ut  dixi,  quaestio  cujus  nodus  est  solvendus,  incurrat ;  vel  quando  non- 
nulla  quae  ornari  possent,  ideo  non  ornantur,  sed  submisso  sermone 
dicuntur,  ut  quibusdam  quasi  toris  ornamentorum  praebeant  emi- 
nentiorem  locum.  Grande  autem  genus  temperata  dictio  non  re- 
quirit;  ad  delectandos  quippe  animos,  non  ad  movendos  ipsa  sus- 
cipitur.     {D.  D.  C.  IV,  22.  52.) 

That  the  above  is  the  principle  employed  by  Cicero  we  find  on 
examining  his  own  testimony  regarding  himself,  as  found  in  Orator, 
29.102  and  103:  Tota  mihi  causa  pro  Caecina  de  verbis  inter- 
dicti  fuit:  res  involutas  definiendo  explicavimus,  ius  civile  laudavi- 
mus,  verba  ambigua  distinximus.  Fuit  ornandus  in  Manilla  lege 
Pompeius :  temperata  oratione  ornandi  copiam  persecuti  sumus.  Ius 
omne  retinendae  maiestatis  Rabirii  causa  continebatur :  ergo  in  ea 
omni  genere  amplificationis  exarsimus.  At  haec  interdum  tempe- 
randa  et  varianda  sunt.  Quod  igitur  in  accusationis  septem  libris 
non  reperitur  genus?  quod  in  Habiti  (as  for  instance,  Plain  Style, 
11^  to  59>4 ;  Middle  Style,  153+  to  155+ ;  Grand  style,  195  to 
end),  quod  in  Cornelii?  quod  in  plurimis  nostris  defensionibusi 
quae  exempla  seligissem,  nisi  vel  nota  esse  arbitrarer  vel  ipsi  pos- 
sent legere  qui  quaererent.  Nulla  est  enim  ullo  in  genere  laus 
(oratoris),  cuius  in  nostris  orationibus  non  sit  aliqua  si  non  per- 
fectio,  at  conatus  tamen  atque  adumbratio. 


IX.    THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  THE  DIVISIONS 

OF  STYLE 
In  an  earlier  work,  entitled  Contra  Cresconium  Donatistam, 
Augustine  draws  a  very  sharp  line  of  demarcation  between  dia- 
lectic and  eloquence,  and  shows  that  dialectic  is  the  instrument  with 
which  the  ecclesiastical  orator  must  debate  and  contend,  and  that 
eloquence  must  be  employed  whenever  the  occasion  may  demand. 
In  Contra  Cresconium,  I,  2,  he  defines  eloquence  as  vero  facultas 
dicendi  est,  congruenter  explicans  quae  sentimus :  qua  tunc  utendum 
est,  cum  recta  sentimus. 

Again  in  the  same  treatise,  I,  16,  he  says:  quaedam  copiose 
ornateque  explicare,  hoc  est  eloquenter ;  quaedam  vero  subtiiiter  ar- 
guteque  disserere,  hoc  est  dialectice. 

Again :  Eloquens  ille  appellandus  est,  qui  non  solum  copiose  et 
ornate  sed  etiani  veraciter  dicit.  And :  dialecticus  ille  appellandus 
est,  qui  non  solum  subtiiiter,  sed  veraciter  etiam  disserit.  He  further 
adds,  Contra  Cresconium,  I,  20:  Si  autem  presse  atque  constricte, 
magis  eum  disputatorem  quam  dictorem  appellare  consueverunt, 
qualiter  agit  idem  apostolus  de  circumcisione  et  praeputio  patris 
Abraham,  vel  distinctione  legis  et  gratiae. 

Here  the  fields  are  dialectic  and  eloquence,  dialectic  being  the  art 
of  discussing  subtly  and  accurately  without  ornamentation  of  speech, 
and  eloquence  the  art  of  speaking  copiously  and  eloquently,  and  at 
the  same  time  truthfully ;  and  the  division  is  essentially  the  same  as 
that  employed  in  the  fourth  book  of  De  Doctrina  Christiana.  Dia- 
lectic, in  Contra  Cresconium,  is  the'  res  of  the  later  work  {D.  D.  C. 
IV,  12.  2y),^  and  eloquence  the  modus  quo  (ibid.). 

This  is,  then,  a  two-fold  division,  in  which  the  one  part  is  to 
discuss  simply,  and  the  other  is  to  employ  whatever  devices  of 
rhetoric  and  oratory  may  be  necessary.  In  the  last  mentioned 
reference,  Augustine  says :  Horum  trium  quod  primo  loco  positum 
est,  hoc  est  docendi  necessitas,  in  rebus  est  constituta  quas  dicimus ; 
reliqua  duo,  in  modo  quo  dicimus.  This  division  is  also  a  two-fold 
one,  into  the  res  and  the  modus  quo,  and  corresponds  exactly  with 
the  above-mentioned  division  in  the  Contra  Cresconium. 

^  See  note  i,  page  4. 


28    CICERO's   INFLUENCE  UPON  AUGUSTINE's  ORATORICAL  THEORY 

By  reference  to  De  Oratore,  II,  77.310,  it  will  be  seen  that 
Augustine  derives  this  two-fold  division  of  his  oratorical  system 
from  Cicero.  He  says :  Tribus  rebus  homines  ad  nostram  sententiam 
perducimus,  aut  docendo  aut  conciliando  aut  permovendo,  una  ex 
tribus  his  rebus  res  prae  nobis  est  ferenda,  ut  nihil  aliud  nisi  docere 
velle  videamur;  reliquae  duae,  sicuti  sanguis  in  corporibus,  sic  illae 
in  perpetuis  orationibus  fusae  esse  debebunt. 

Again  in  the  Brutus,  23.  89 :  Duae  summae  sint  in  oratore  laudes, 
una  subtiliter  disputandi  ad  docendum,  altera  graviter  agendi  ad 
animos  audientium  permovendos. 

This  dual  division,  in  the  oratorical  system  of  Augustine  is, 
therefore,  clearly  taken  from  Cicero,  and  due  consideration  should 
be  attached  to  this  fact,  since  it  is  the  vital  nexus  between  these  two 
systems  of  oratory,  the  one  legal,  the  other  Christian.  It  is  pre- 
cisely at  this  point  that  Augustine  draws  on  Cicero  for  the  founda- 
tion principles  of  his  oratorical  theory,  which,  when  fully  appreci- 
ated by  the  student  of  both  masters,  makes  the  comparison  of  their 
respective  systems  a  relatively  easy  matter.  In  the  broadest  of  essen- 
tials, they  are  identical,  and  it  follows  as  a  natural  sequence,  that,  in 
so  far  as  the  nature  of  the  oratorical  training  of  the  Ecclesiasticus 
v^ill  permit,  it  must  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  Juris  Consultus. 

The  final  step  in  the  basic  partitioning  is  a  natural  one  and  easily 
taken.  Since  there  are  two  universal  principles  in  oratory,  the  one 
dealing  with  the  subject  matter,  the  other  with  the  manner  of  de- 
liver}'-, the  latter  divides  itself,  naturally,  into  two  parts,  the  one  of 
pleasing,  the  other  of  moving  men.  This  final  and  complete  division 
into  three  parts  is  seen  in  the  Brutus,  49.  185 :  Tria  sunt  enim,  ut 
quidem  ego  sentio,  quae  sint  efficienda  dicendo ;  ut  doceatur  is,  apud 
quern  dicetur,  ut  delectetur,  ut  moveatur.  Now  what  Augustine  in 
reality  does,  is  to  accept  the  three-fold  division  of  Cicero,  {D.  D.  C. 
IV,  12.  27),-  and  then  point  out  that  the  first  deals  with  res,  subject 
matter,  or  Scripture,  and  the  other  two  with  the  modus  quo  of  de- 
livery, or  rhetoric.  From  the  standpoint  of  either  conception,  either 
of  the  dual  or  of  the  tripartite,  the  function  of  the  one  part  is  to 
teach,  that  of  the  other,  or  other  two,  to  deal  purely  with  the  art  of 
expression.  This,  then,  on  the  reverse  curve  of  the  same  circle, 
returns  to  the  functions  of  the  orator,  which  are  to  teach,  to  delight, 

"  See  note  i,  page  4. 


INTERPRETATION  OF  DIVISIONS  OF  STYLE  29 

to  persuade;  and  to  accomplish  which,  as  has  been  seen,  the  orator 
must  employ  the  Plain,  the  Middle,  and  the  Grand  Styles  of  oratory. 
To  employ  the  Plain  Style  is  to  use  dialectic,  or  Scripture,  of  Contra 
Cresconhim;  or  res,  or  Scripture,  of  De  Doctrina  Christiana.  To 
employ  the  Middle  or  Grand  Style,  is  to  use  the  modus  quo,  or 
rhetoric,  of  both  treatises.  To  speak  copiose  ornateque  (Contra 
Cres.  I,  16),  and  etiam  veraciter,  is  to  be  eloquent,  to  employ  the 
Middle  Style  when  the  object  is  to  please,  and  the  Grand  Style  when 
the  hearer  is  to  be  stirred  and  aroused  to  action :  to  discuss  a  subject 
subtiliter  (ibid.,  and  Bnitiis,  23.89),  arguteque  and  veraciter  {Contra 
Cres.  I,  16),  is  to  use  the  Plain  Style  when  the  purpose  is  to  teach, 
to  define,  or  to  refute  an  error,  or  to  handle  subjects  involving 
technicalities,  difficulties  and  obscurities.  In  short,  explicare  or- 
nateque copiose,  and  etiam  veraciter,  is  to  be  eloquent,  to  be  con- 
cerned with  the  modus  quo ;  while  subtiliter  arguteque  disserere,  and 
autem  presse  atque  constricte  {Contra  Cres.  I,  20),  as  for  instance, 
de  circumcisione,  vel  distinctione  legis  et  gratiae  (ibid.),  is  to  be  a 
dialectician,  a  teacher,  a  debater  rather  than  an  eloquent  man — one 
whose  purpose  it  is  to  be  a  master  of  res. 

The  treatise,  Contra  Cresconium,  thus  affords  us  the  key  to  the 
interpretation^  of  the  three-fold  division  of  styles  in  the  fourth  book 
of  De  Doctrina  Christiana.  The  Plain  Style  is  dialectic,  the  Middle 
and  the  Grand  Styles,  rhetoric;  the  synthesis  of  the  two  elements 
goes  back  to  the  time  when  the  rhetoricians  began  to  recognize  the 
necessity  of  more  exact  proof.  It  can  be  traced  to  Hermagoras,  who 
is,  perhaps,  the  author  of  the  three-fold  style,  and  Cicero,  in  Delnven- 
tione,  II,  2. y  and  8,  says  :  Atque  alii  quoque  alio  ex  fonte  praeceptores 
dicendi  emanaverunt,  qui  item  permultum  ad  dicendum,  si  quid  ars 
proficit,  opitulati  sunt.  Nam  fuit  tempore  eodem,  quo  Aristoteles, 
magnus  et  nobilis  rhetor  Isocrates;  cuius  ipsius  quam  constet  esse 
artem,  non  invenimus.  Discipulorum  autem  atque  eorum,  qui  pro- 
tinus  ab  hac  sunt  disciplina  profecti,  multa  de  arte  praecepta  reperi- 
mus.  Ex  his  duabus  diversis  sicuti  familiis,  quarum  altera  quum 
versaretur  in  philosophia,  nonnullam  rhetoricae  quoque  artis  sibi 
curam  adsumebat,  altera  vero  omnis  in  dicendi  erat  studio  et  prae- 
ceptione  occupata,  unum  quoddam  est  conflatum  genus  a  posteriori- 
bus,  qui  ab  utrisque  ea,  quae  commode  dici  videbantur,  in  suas  artes 
contulerunt. 

'  See  Hendrickson,  A.  J.  P.  Vol.  XXVI,  "Origin  and  Meaning  of  Char- 
acters of   Style." 


X.  THE  NORM  OF  AUGUSTINE;  EXAMPLES  FROM 
PAUL  AND  AMOS 

As  there  is  an  eloquence  adapted  to  youth,  and  an  eloquence 
becoming  to  old  age,  so  there  is  an  eloquence  peculiarly  appropriate 
to  the  character  of  the  ecclesiastical  orator.  It  is  of  a  type  that  is 
both  unique  and  divine,  since  it  deals  with  God,  with  man,  with 
morals,  and  with  the  future  state  of  the  soul.  It  places  him  at  once 
on  the  very  highest  plane,  and  imposes  on  him  the  most  exalted  ob- 
ligations. Therefore,  his  speech  and  language  should  comport  with 
the  dignity  of  his  theme  and  the  sacredness  of  his  office. 

That  Augustine  chose  both  a  high  type  of  oratory  for  his  norm, 
and  one  in  strict  accord  with  the  proper  conception  of  the  character 
of  the  ecclesiastical  orator,  may  be  seen  from  an  examination  of  the 
extracts,  which  he  takes  as  examples  of  model  eloquence,  from  the 
writings  of  the  Apostle  Paul,  and  the  Prophet  Amos.  These  are 
shown  to  possess  both  wisdom  and  eloquence,  wisdom  being  the 
guide,  and  eloquence  the  attendant,  neither  displayed  in  a  gaudy  or 
conspicuous  fashion,  yet  both  harmoniously  and  artistically  blended 
after  the  pattern  of  the  finest  art. 

Following  are  the  passages  with  analyses  thereof. 

A 

The  Apostle  Rejoices  in  Tribulation 
D.  D.  C.  IV,  7.  II :  Gloriamus  in  tribulationibus,  scientes  quia 
tribulatio  patientiam  operatur,  patientia  autem  probationem,  probatio 
vero  spem,  spes  autem  non  confundit;  quia  charitas  Dei  diffusa  est 
in  cordibus  nostris  per  Spiritum  sanctum  qui  datus  est  nobis.  (Rom. 
V,  3-5.)  The  following  is  the  analysis  as  given  by  Augustine  him- 
self, together  with  other  observations. 

a.  Gloriamus  in  tribulationibus, 
Main  sentence  of  one  membrum. 

b.  scientes  quia  tribulatio  patientiam  operatur, 
patientia  autem  probationem, 

probatio  vero  spem, 

A  climax,  or  gradatio,  of  three  membra. 

c.  spes  autem  non  confundit ; 

quia   charitas   Dei   diffusa   est   in   cordibus   nostris   per 
Spiritum  sanctum  qui  datus  est  nobis. 


THE   NORM   OF  AUGUSTINE  3I 

To  sum  up,  there  are  in  this  short  extract,  (i)  the  cHmax ;  (2) 
a  period;  (3)  six  membra,  or  clauses,  besides  metaphor  which  is 
sustained  through  five  of  the  six  clauses.  The  style  is  Temperata 
Dictio. 

B 

Paul's  Defense,  to  the  Corinthians,  of  his  Apostleship, 
IN  the  Form  of  a  Boast 

D.   D.   C.    IV,   7.12:     Iterum  dico,   ne   quis   me   existimet   in- 
sipientem  esse;  alioquin  velut  insipientem  suscipite  me,  ut  et  ego 
modicum  quid  glorier.    Quod  loquor,  non  loquor  secundum  Deum, 
sed  quasi  in  stultitia,  in  hac  substantia  gloriae.     Quoniam  quidem 
multi  gloriantur  secundum  carnem,  et  ego  gloriabor.    Libenter  enim 
sustinetis  insipientes,  cum  sitis  ipsi  sapientes.     Toleratis  enim  si 
quis  vos  in  servitutem  redigit,  si  quis  devorat,  si  quis  accipit,  si  quis 
extollitur,  si  quis  in  faciem  vos  caedit.   Secundum  ignobilitatem  dico, 
quasi  nos  infirmati  simus.     In  quo  autem  quis  audet  (in  insipientia 
dico),  audeo  et  ego.    Hebraei  sunt?  et  ego.    Israelitae  sunt?  et  ego. 
Semen  Abrahae  sunt?    et  ego.     Ministri  Christi  sunt?    (insipiens 
dico)  super  ego.    In  laboribus  plurimum,  in  carceribus  abundantius, 
in  plagis  supra  modum,  in  mortibus  saepius.     A  Judaeis  quinquies, 
quadraginta  una  minus  accepi.     Ter  virgis  caesus  sum,  semel  lapi- 
datus  sum,  ter  naufragium  feci:  nocte  et  die  in  profundo  maris  fui; 
in  itineribus  saepe,  periculis  fluminum,  periculis  latronum,  periculis 
ex  genere,  periculis  ex  gentibus,  periculis  in  civitate,  periculis  in 
deserto,  periculis  in  mari,  periculis  in  falsis  fratribus:  in  labore  et 
aerumna,  in  vigiliis  saepius,  in  fame  et  siti,  in  ieiuniis  saepius,  in 
f  rigore  et  nuditate :  praeter  ilia  quae  extrinsecus  sunt,  incursus  in  me 
quotidianus,  sollicitudo  omnium  Ecclesiarum.     Quis  infirmatur,  et 
ego  non  infirmor?  quis  scandalizatur,  et  ego  non  uror?    Si  gloriari 
oportet,  in  iis  quae  infirmitatis  meae  sunt,  gloriabor.  (II  Cor.  XI, 
16-30). 

(i)     His  Apology 

a.     His  aversion  to  being  considered  a  fool. 
Interum  dico, 

ne  quis  me  existimet  insipientem  esse; 
A  period  of  two  membra. 


32    CICERO's  INFLUENCE   UPON  AUGUSTINE'S  ORATORICAL  THEORY 

b.  Sarcasm  toward  his  enemies, 
alioquin  velut 
insipientem  suscipite  me, 

ut  ego  modicum  quid  glorier. 
A  period  of  three  membra. 

c.  Tenderness  for  his  Master. 
Quod  loquor, 

non  loquor  secundum  Deum, 
sed  quasi  in  stultitia, 
in  hac  substantia  gloriae. 
A  period  of  four  membra. 

d.  A  thrust  at  his  enemies. 
Ouoniam  quidem  multi  gloriantur 
secundum  carnem, 

becomes  the  most  tense,  preparatory  to  his  final  outburst  in  the  last 
A  period  of  two  membra. 

e.  Sarcasm  against  those  who  are  "fools"  and  those  who 

are  "wise". 
Libenter  enim'  sustinetis  insipientes, 
cum  sitis  ipsi  sapientes. 
A  period  of  two  membra. 

f.  In  the  three  following  divisions  Paul  advances  reasons 

why  he  should  be  heard. 
Toleratis  enini 

si  quis  vos  in  servitutem  redigit, 
si  quis  devorat, 
si  quis  accipit, 
si  quis  extollitur, 
si  quis  in  faciem  vos  caedit. 
A  period  of  two  membra,  three  caesa,  and  one  membrum. 

g.  Secundum  ignobilitatem  dico, 
quasi  nos  infirmati  simus. 

A  period  of  two  membra. 
h.     In  quo  autem  quis  audet 
(in  insipientia  dico), 
audeo  et  ego. 

A  period  of  three  membra. 
It  will  be  observed  that  the  above  eight  divisions  consist  of  a 
series  of  eight  periods :  four  consisting  of  two  membra  each,  two  of 


THE   NORM   OF  AUGUSTINE  33 

three,  one  of  four  and  one  compounded  of  two  membra,  three  caesa, 
and  one  membrum.  Psychologically,  the  sixth,  or  f-division,  con- 
tains the  climax,  since  it  is  in  the  three  caesa  that  the  orator's  feeling 
becomes  the  most  tense,  preparatory  to  his  final  outburst  in  the  last 
membrum  of  the  same  division.  The  height  of  his  oratorical 
curve  having  been  reached,  he  begins  to  descend  in  the  first  membrum 
of  the  seventh,  or  g-division,  by  a  return  to  the  word  secundum, 
since  it  is  by  means  of  this  word  in  the  c  and  d-divisions  that  he 
assumes  personal  responsibility  for  his  attack  against  his  detractors 
which  is  to  be  both  thoroughly  human  and  absolutely  decisive. 

(2)     The  Boast  Proper 

a.  Glorying  after  the  flesh.    A  climactic  arrangement,  since 

Hebraei  is  the  national  name,  Israelitae  the  religious 
name.  Semen  Abrahae,  "heirs  of  promise,"  and  minis- 
tri  Christi. 

Hebraei  sunt  ? 

et  ego. 

Israelitae  sunt? 

et  ego. 

Semen  Abrahae  sunt? 

et  ego. 

Ministri  Christi  sunt? 

(insipiens  dico) 

super  ego. 

A  period  of  nine  caesa. 

b.  Hitherto  it  has  been  a  question  of  externals.    Here  Paul 

claims  the  right  to  be  the  chief  apostle  because  of  his 
sufferings.  His  elaboration  of  the  "super  ego"  pos- 
sesses the  merit  of  the  highest  art. 

1.  In  laboribus  plurimum, 
in  carceribus  abundantius, 
in  plagis  supra  modum, 

in  mortibus  saepius. 

A  period  of  four  caesa.     Gradatio. 

2.  A  Judaeis  quinquies, 
quadraginta  una  minus  accepi. 
A  period  of  two  membra. 


34    CICERO  S  INFLUENCE  UPON   AUGUSTINE  S  ORATORICAL  THEORY 

3.  Ter  viigis  caesus  sum, 
semel  lapidatus  sum, 

ter  nauf ragium  feci : 

nocte  et  die  in  profundo  maris  fui ; 

A  period  of  four  membra.    Gradatio. 

4.  in  itineribus  saepe, 
periculis  fluminum, 
periculis  latronum, 
periculis  ex  genere, 
periculis     ex  gentibus, 
periculis  in  civitate, 
periculis  in  deserto, 
periculis  in  mari, 
periculis  in  falsis  fratribus; 
in  labore  et  aerumna, 

in  vigiliis  saepius, 
in  fame  et  siti, 
in  ieiuniis  saepius, 
in  frigore  et  nuditate; 
A  period  of  fourteen  caesa. 
c.     A  graceful  descent,  pathetically  portraying  the  Apostle's 
sufferings. 

1.  praeter  ilia  quae  extrinsecus  sunt, 
incursus  in  me  quotidianus, 
sollicitudo  omnium  Ecclesiarum. 

A  period  of  three  membra.    Gradatio. 

2.  Quis  infirmatur, 
et  ego  non  infirmor? 
quis  scandalizatur, 
et  ego  non  uror? 

A  period  of  four  membra. 

3.  Si  gloriari  oportet, 

in  iis  quae  infirmitatis  meae  sunt, 

gloriabor. 

A  period  of  three  membra.    Conclusion. 

In  the  above  examples  there  are  three  periods  consisting  of  nine, 

four,  and  fourteen  caesa  respectively;  one  period  of  two  membra, 

two  of  three,  and  two  of  four.    There  are,  also,  four  gradationes,  two 

in  the  caesa,  and  two  in  the  membra.    Division  b,  i,  is  conspicuous 


THE  NORM   OF  AUGUSTINE  35 

for  its  poetic  rhythm,  and  its  use  of  the  preposition ;  d,  5,  consisting 
of  fourteen  caesa,  has  eight  beginning  with  pericuHs,  and  six,  the 
first  and  last  five,  with  the  same  preposition.  The  entire  passage  is 
one  of  great  oratorical  force,  and  belongs  to  Grandis  Dictio. 


Amos  on  the  Wantonness  of  Israel 

Vae  qui  opulenti  estis  in  Sion,  et  confiditis  in  monte  Samariae, 
optimates  capita  populorum,  ingredientes  pompatice  domum  Israel ! 
Transite  in  Chalanne,  et  videte,  et  ite  inde  in  Emath  magnam,  et 
descendite  in  Geth  Palaestinorum,  et  ad  optima  quaeque  regna 
horum,  si  latior  terminus  eorum  termino  vestro  est.  Qui  separati 
estis  in  diem  malum,  et  appropinquatis  solio  iniquitatis.  Qui  dormitis 
in  lectis  eburneis,  et  lascivitis  in  stratis  vestris :  qui  comeditis  agnum 
de  grege,  et  vitulos  de  medio  armenti :  qui  canitis  ad  vocem  Psalterii. 
Sicut  David  putaverunt  se  habere  vasa  cantici ;  bibentes  in  phialis 
vinum,  et  optimo  unguento  delibuti :  et  nihil  patiebantur  super  con- 
tritione  Joseph.     (Amos  VI,  1-6.)  D.  D.  C.  IV,  7.  16. 

a.  The  invective. 

Vae  qui  opulenti  estis  in  Sion, 
et  confiditis  in  monte  Samariae, 
optimates  capita  populorum, 
ingredientes  pompatice  domum  Israel ! 
A  period  of  four  membra. 

b.  Against  their  ingratitude. 
Transite  in  Chalanne, 

et  videte, 

et  ite  inde  in  Emath  magnam, 

et  descendite  in  Geth  Palaestinorum, 

et  ad  optima  quaeque  regna  horum, 

si  latior  terminus  eorum  termino  vestro  est. 

A  period  of  two  caesa  and  four  membra. 

c.  Announcement  of  future  captivity. 
Qui  separati  estis  in  diem  malum, 
et  appropinquatis  solio  iniquitatis. 
A  period  of  two  membra. 


36    CICERO's   INFLUENCE  UPON  AUGUSTINE's   ORATORICAL  THEORY 

d.  On  the  evils  of  luxury. 

1.  The  lascivious  couches. 
Qui  dormitis  in  lectis  eburneis, 
et  lascivitis  in  stratis  vestris : 

2.  The  luxurious  tables. 

qui  comeditis  agnum  de  grege, 

et  vitulos  de  medio  armenti : 

qui  canitis  ad  vocem  Psalterii. 

A  compound  period  of  five  membra. 

e.  Admonishes  to  observe  the  difference  between  the  music 

of  the  wise  and  that  of  lasciviousness. 
Sicut  Da\ad  putaverunt  se  habere  vasa  cantici; 
bibentes  in  phialis  vinum, 
et  Optimo  unguento  delibuti : 
A  period  of  three  membra. 

f.  Of  their  hardness  of  heart, 
et  nihil  patiebantur 

super  contritione  Joseph. 

A  closing  period  of  two  membra. 

As  regards  this  passage,  Augustine  calls  attention  to  the  fact 
that  it  contains  nothing  that  sober  ears  could  wish  changed  and  in 
addition,  points  out  its  prominent  features.  First,  the  invective 
hurled  upon  the  benumbed  senses  of  the  drowsy  listeners,  and  while 
chiding  them  on  their  ingratitude,  the  prophet  adorns  his  utterances 
with  the  names  of  places  as  with  torches.  Simul  etiam  cum 
ista  dicuntur,  locorum  nominibus  tanquam  luminibus  ornatur  elo- 
quium,  quae  sunt  Sion,  Samaria,  Chalanne,  Emath  magna,  et  Geth 
Palaestinorum.     (D.  D.  C.  IV,  7.  17). 

The  entire  passage  is  adorned  with  metaphor  and  other  figures  of 
speech,  as  for  instance;  (a)  confiditis  in  monte  Samariae  (person.), 
and  domum  Israel  (meta.)  ;  (b)  latior  terminus  (Synec.)  ;  (c)  in 
diem  malum  (meta.),  and  solio  iniquitatis  (meta.)  ;  and  (d,  i  and  2) 
while  not  strictly  figurative,  are  quite  as  bold  by  virtue  of  their  in- 
herent richness  of  speech.  As  regards  (e),  it  is  full  of  grace,  while 
of  the  last  period  Augustine  says  (Z).  D.  C.  IV,  7.  20)  :  Miro  decore 
non  dictum  est,  nihil  patiebantur  super  contritione  f  ratris,  sed  positus 
est  pro  fratre,  Joseph,  ut  quicumque  f rater  proprio  significaretur  ejus 
nomine,  cujus  ex  fratribus  fama  praeclara  est,  vel  in  malis  quae 
pendit,  vel  in  bonis  quae  rependit.  The  passage  is  also  another  ex- 
ample of  Grandis  Dictio. 


XI.     ILLUSTRATION  OF  THE  PLAIN  STYLE 

Augustine  selected  four  specimens  as  illustrations  of  the  Plain 
Style  in  oratory,  two  of  which  are  taken  from  the  writings  of  the 
Apostle  Paul,  and  one  each  from  the  writings  of  Cyprian  and  St. 
Ambrose.  It  being  his  conception  that  the  province  of  the  Plain 
Style  is  both  to  teach  and  to  anticipate  objections,  he  chose  extracts 
which  conform  thoroughly  to  this  conception. 

In  these  no  ornamentation  of  diction  is  to  be  found  but  on  the 
contrary,  the  language  is  devoid  of  all  rhetorical  coloring,  and  con- 
fines itself  entirely  to  the  development  of  the  thought  which  is  both 
obscure  and  technical. 


Paul  on  the  Law  of  Moses 

D.  D.  C.  IV,  20.  39 :  Dicite  mihi,  sub  Lege  volentes  esse.  Legem 
non  audistis?  Scriptum  est  enim,  quod  Abraham  duos  filios  habuit, 
unum  de  ancilla,  et  unum  de  libera ;  sed  ille  qui  de  ancilla,  secundum 
carnem  natus  est;  qui  autem  de  libera,  per  repromissionem:  quae 
sunt  in  allegoria.  Haec  enim  sunt  duo  Testamenta :  unum  quidem  e 
monte  Sina  in  servitutem  generans,  quae  est  Agar.  Sina  enim  mons 
est  in  Arabia,  qui  conjunctus  est  huic  quae  nunc  est  Jerusalem,  et 
servit  cum  filiis  suis.  Quae  autem  sursum  est  Jerusalem,  libera  est, 
quae  est  mater  nostra.     (Gal.  IV,  21-26). 

Analysis  of  the  above  in  accordance  with  the  Norm  of  Augustine 

a.  Address  to  the  Galatians ;   question  regarding  the  law  of 

Moses. 
Dicite  mihi, 

sub  Lege  volentes  esse, 
Legem  non  audistis  ? 
A  period  of  three  membra. 

b.  Ishmael  and  Isaac;  beginning  of  the  allegory. 
Scriptum  est  enim, 

quod  Abraham  duos  filios  habuit, 

unum  de  ancilla, 

et  unum  de  libera ; 

A  period  of  two  membra  and  two  caesa. 


38    CICERO's  INFLUENCE  UPON  AUGUSTINE's   ORATORICAL  THEORY 

c.  The  allegory  completed;    contrast  between  bondage  and 

freedom, 
sed  ille  qui  de  ancilla, 
secundum  carnem  natus  est ; 
qui  autem  de  libera, 
per  repromissionem : 
quae  sunt  in  allegoria. 
A  period  of  two  membra,  two  caesa  and  a  membrum. 

d.  Explanation  of  the  allegory. 
Haec  enim  sunt  duo  Testamenta: 

unum  quidem  e  monte  Sina  in  servitutem  generans, 

quae  est  Agar. 

A  period  of  three  membra. 

e.  Comparison  between  Sinai  and  Jerusalem. 
Sina  enim  mons  est  in  Arabia, 

qui  coniunctus  est  huic 
quae  nunc  est  Jerusalem, 
et  servit  cum  filiis  suis. 
A  period  of  four  membra. 

f .  Jerusalem  alone  is  free. 

Quae  autem  sursum  est  Jerusalem, 
liberata  est, 
quae  est  mater  nostra. 

A  period  of  one  membrum;,  a  caesum  and  a  membrum. 
"In  the  above  extract,  Paul  proceeds  to  address  his  readers  in  a 
style  which  we  find  nowhere  else  in  his  Epistles.  He  will  tell — a 
story !  Perhaps  he  may  succeed  better  than  by  graver  argument. 
Their  (the  Galatians')  quick  fancy  will  readily  apprehend  the  bear- 
ing of  the  illustration ;  it  may  bring  home  to  them  the  force  of  his 
doctrinal  contention,  and  the  peril  of  their  own  position,  as  he  fears 
they  have  not  seen  them  yet.  And  so,  after  the  pathetic  appeal  of  the 
last  paragraph,  and  before  he  delivers  his  decisive,  official  protest  to 
the  Galatians  against  their  circumcision,  he  injects  this  allegory  of 
the  two  sons  of  Abraham."  (Findlay:  An  Exposition  of  the  Bible, 
Vol.  V,  p.  882). 

B 
Paul  on  the  Covenant  of  Promise  Made  to  Aisraham 
D.  D.  C.  IV,  20.  39 :    Fratres,  secundum  hominem  dico,  tamen 
hominis  confirmatum  testamentum  nemo  irritum  facit,  aut  superor- 


ILLUSTRATION  OF  THE  PLAIN  STYLE  39 

dinat.  Abrahae  dictae  sunt  promissiones  et  semini  eius.  Non  dicit, 
et  seminibus,  tanquam  in  multis,  sed  tanquam  in  uno,  et  semini  tuo, 
quod  est  Christus.  Hoc  autem  dico,  testamentum  confirmatum  a 
Deo,  quae  post  quadringentos  et  triginta  annos  facta  est  Lex,  non 
infirmat  ad  evacuandas  promissiones.  Si  enim  ex  Lege  haereditas, 
iam  non  ex  promissione.  Abrahae  autem  per  repromissionem 
donavit  Deus.  Quid  ergo  Lex?  Transgressionis  gratia  proposita 
est,  donee  veniret  semen  cui  promissum  est,  disposita  per  Angelos  in 
manu  mediatoris.  Mediator  autem  unius  non  est,  Deus  vero  unus 
est.  Lex  ergo  adversus  promissa  Dei?  Absit.  Si  enim  data  esset 
Lex  quae  posset  vivificare,  omnino  ex  Lege  esset  justitia.  Sed  con- 
clusit  Scriptura  omnia  sub  peccato,  ut  promissio  ex  fide  Jesu 
Christi  daretur  credentibus.  (Gal.  Ill,  15-22). 
Analysis  of  the  above  in  accordance  ivith  the  Norm  of  Augustine 

a.  A    will,    or    testament    made    by    man,    when    properly 

attested,  cannot  be  abrogated. 
Fratres,  secundum  hominem  dico, 
tamen  hominis  confirmatum  testamentum 
nemo  irritum  facit, 
aut  superordinat. 
A  section  of  four  membra. 

b.  Jehova's  covenant  with  Abraham  and  his  seed. 
Abrahae  dictae  sunt  promissiones  et  semini  eius. 
Non  dicit, 

et  seminibus, 

tanquam  in  multis, 

sed  tanquam  in  uno, 

et  semini  tuo, 

quod  est  Christus. 

A  period  of  one  membrum  and  six  caesa. 

c.  A  testament  ratified  of  God  430  years  previously, 

the  law  of  Moses  cannot  annul. 
Hoc  autem  dico,  - 
testamentum  confirmatum  a  Deo, 
quae  post  quadringentos  et  triginta  annos 
facta  est  Lex, 

non  infirmat  ad  evacuandas  promissiones. 
A  period  of  four  membra. 

d.  Inheritance  by  promise. 


40    CICERO  S  INFLUENCE  UPON  AUGUSTINE  S   ORATORICAL  THEORY 

Si  enim  ex  Lege  haereditas, 

iam  noil  ex  promissione. 

Abrahae  autem  per  repromissionem  donavit  Deus. 

A  period  of  three  membra. 

e.  Purpose  of  the  law. 
Quid  ergo  Lex? 

Transgressionis  gratia  proposita  est, 
donee  veniret  semen  cui  promissum  est, 
disposita  per  Angelos  in  manu  mediatoris. 
Mediator  autem  unius  non  est, 

Deus  vero  unus  est. 

A  period  of  six  membra. 

f.  The  law  does  not  conflict  with  promise. 
Lex  ergo  adversus  promissa  Dei? 
Absit. 

A  period  of  one  membrum  and  one  caesum. 

g.  A  reason  for  the  last  statement. 
Si  enim  data  esset  Lex 

quae  posset  vivificare, 

omnino  ex  Lege  esset  iustitia. 

Sed  conclusit  Scriptura  omnia  sub  peccato, 

ut  promissio  ex  fide  Jesu  Christi  daretur  credentibus. 

A  period  of  five  membra. 
"This  part  of  the  Epistle  is  in  fact  a  piece  of  inspired  historical 
criticism ;  it  is  a  magnificent  reconstruction  of  the  course  of  sacred 
history.  It  is  Paul's  theory  of  a  doctrinal  development,  condensing 
into  a  few  pregnant  sentences  the  rationale  of  Judaism,  explaining 
God's  dealings  with  mankind  from  Adam  to  Christ,  and  fitting  the 
legal  system  into  its  place  in  this  order  with  an  exactness  and  con- 
sistency that  supply  an  effectual  verification  of  the  hypothesis." 
(Findlay:  An  Exposition  of  the  Bible,  Vol.  V,  p.  86i). 

To  conclude :  it  is  clear  that  the  Apostle  had  only  in  mind  to 
establish  the  superiority  of  the  covenant  made  to  Abraham  over 
the  law  of  Moses ;  that  in  order  to  do  this  he  lays  down  a  funda- 
mental principle,  that  of  the  sacredness  of  man's  will  when  properly 
attested ;  that  God  made  a  covenant  with  Abraham  before  the  time 
of  Moses,  and  that  He  swore  to  it;  that  therefore  even  as  man's 
will  and  testament  is  not  to  be  set  aside,  even  so  much  the  more  is 


ILLUSTRATION  OF  THE  PLAIN   STYLE  4I 

the  covenant  of  God  to  stand  unimpeached  over  against  the  law 
of  Moses.  There  is,  moreover,  no  ornamentation  of  diction,  but 
on  the  other  hand,  plain  and  unadorned  speech.  This  passage, 
therefore,  is  justly  referred  to  as  a  specimen  of  the  Submissa  Dictio. 

C 

Cyprian  on  the  Sacrament  of  the  Cup 
D.  D.  C.  TV,  21.45:     Admonitos  autem  nos  scias,  ut  in  cahce 
offerendo  dominica  traditio  servetur,  neque  aliud  fiat  a  nobis,  quam 
quod  pro  nobis  Dominus  prior  fecit,  ut  calix  qui  in  commemora- 
tionem  eius  offertur,  vino  mixtus  offeratur.    Nam  cum  dicat  Chris- 
tus,  "Ego  sum  vitis  vera,"  (Joan.  XV,  5)  ;  sanguis  Christi,  non  aqua 
est  utique,  sed  vinum ;  nee  potest  videri  sanguis  eius,  quo  redempti 
et  vivificati  sumus,  esse  in  calice,  quando  vinum  desit  calici,  quo 
Christi  sanguis  ostenditur;  qui  Scripturarum  omnium  sacramento 
ac  testimonio  praedicatur.     Invenimus  enim  in  Genesi  circa  sacra- 
mentum  Noe  hoc  idem  praecucurrisse,  et  figuram  dominicae  pas- 
sionis  illic  exstitisse,  quod  vinum  bibit,  quod  inebriatus  est,  quod 
in  domo  sua  nudatus  est,  quod  fuit  recubans  nudis  et  patentibus 
femoribus;  quod  nuditas  ilia  patris  a  medio  fiho  denotata  est;  a 
maiore  v.ero  et  minore  contecta  (Gen.  IX,  20-25),  et  cetera  quae 
necesse  non  est  exsequi,  cum  satis  sit  hoc  solum  complecti,  quod 
Noe   typum    futurae    veritatis    ostendens,    non    aquam    sed    vinum 
biberit;    et  sic  imaginem  dominicae  passionis  expresserit.     Item  in 
sacerdote    Melchisedech    dominicum    sacramentum    praefiguratum 
videmus,  secundum  quod  Scriptura  divina  testatur,  et  dicit:    "Et 
Melchisedech   rex   Salem  protulit  panem   et  vinum.     Fuit  autem 
sacerdos  Dei  summi,  et  benedixit  Abraham."    (Id.  XIX,  18).    Quod 
autem  Melchisedech  typum  Christi  portaret,   declarat  in   Psalmis 
Spiritus  sanctus,  ex  persona  Patris  ad  Filium  dicens :    "Ante  Luci- 
ferum  genui  te.     Tu  es  sacerdos  in  aeternum  secundum  ordinem 
Melchisedech."    (Ps.  CIX,  4). 
Analysis  of  the  above  in  accordance  zvith  the  Norm  of  Augustine 

a.     Admonitos  autem  nos  scias, 

ut  in  calice  offerendo  dominica  traditio  servetur, 

neque  aliud  fiat  a  nobis, 

quam  quod  pro  nobis  Dominus  prior  fecit, 

ut  calix,  qui  in  commemoration  em  eius  ofifertur. 


42     CICERO  S  INFLUENCE  UPON  AUGUSTINE  S  ORATORICAL  THEORY 

vino  mixtus  offeratur. 
A  period  of  six  membra. 

b.  "I  am  the  true  vine."    John  XV,  I. 
Nam  cum  dicat  Christus, 

"Ego  sum  vitis  vera"  ; 

sanguis  Christi,  non  aqua  est  utique,  sed  vinum; 

nee  potest  videri  sanguis  eius, 

quo  redempti  et  vivificati  sumus, 

esse  in  calice, 

quando  vinum  desit  calici, 

quo  Christi  sanguis  ostenditur; 

qui  Scripturarum  omnium  sacramento  ac  testimonio 

praedicatur. 
A  period  of  nine  membra. 

c.  The  Master's  sufferings  typified  in  the  case  of  Noah. 
Invenimus  enim  in  Genesi  circa  sacramentum 

Noe  hoc  idem  praecucurrisse, 

et  figuram  dominicae  passionis  illic  exstitisse, 

quod  vinum  bibit, 

quod  inebriatus  est, 

quod  in  domo  sua  nudatus  est, 

quod  fuit  recubans  nudis  et  patentibus  femoribus; 

quod  nuditas  ilia  patris  a  medio  filio  denotata  est ; 

a  maiore  vero  et  minore  contecta. 

A  period  of  nine  membra. 

d.  The  Master's  passion  represented  by  wine. 
Et  cetera  quae  necesse  non  est  exsequi, 
cum  satis  sit  hoc  solum  complecti, 

quod  Noe  typum  futurae  veritatis  ostendens, 
non  aquam  sed  vinum  biberit ; 
et  sic  imaginem  dominicae  passionis  expresserit. 
A  period  of  five  membra. 

e.  The  Priest  Melchizedek. 

Item  in  sacerdote  Melchisedech 
dominicum  sacramentum  praefiguratum  videmus, 
secundum  quod  Scriptura  divina  testatur  et  dicit: 
"Et  Melchisedech  rex  Salem  protulit  panem  et  vinum. 
Fuit  autem  sacerdos  Dei  summi, 


ILLUSTRATION   OF  THE  PLAIN   STYLE  43 

et  benedixit  Abraham." 
A  period  of  six  membra, 
f.     Melchizedek  a  type  of  Christ. 

Quod  autem  Melchisedech  typum  Christi  portaret, 

declarat  in  Psahnis  Spiritus  sanctus, 

ex  persona  Patris  ad  Filium  dicens : 

"Ante  Luciferum  genui  te. 

Tu  es  sacerdos  in  aeternum  secundum  ordinem 

Melchisedech." 
A  period  of  five  membra. 

D 

St.  Ambrose  on  the  Holy  Spirit 
D.  D.  C.  IV,  21.46:  Commotus  oraculo  Gedeon,  cum  audisset 
quod  deficientibus  Hcet  populorum  millibus,  in  uno  viro  Dominus 
plebem  suam  ab  hostibus  liberaret,  obtulit  haedum  caprarum,  cuius 
carnem  secundum  praeceptum  angeH,  et  azyma  supra  petram  posuit, 
et  eo  jure  perfudit :  quae  simul  ut  virgae  cacumine,  quam  gerebat, 
angekis  Dei  contigit,  de  petra  ignis  erupit,  atque  ita  sacrificium  quod 
ofiferebatur  absumptum  est.  (Jud.  IV,  11-21).  Quo  indicio  declara- 
tum  videtur,  quod  petra  ilia  typum  habuerit  corporis  Christi ;  quia 
scriptum  est,  "bibebant  de  consequent!  petra.  petra  autem  erat 
Christus."  (I  Cor.  X,  4.)  Quod  utique  non  ad  divinitatem  ejus, 
sed  ad  carnem  relatum  est,  quae  sitientium  corda  populorum  perenni 
rivo  sui  sanguinis  inundavit.  lam  tunc  igitur  in  mysterio  declaratum 
est,  quia  Dominus  Jesus  in  came  sua,  totius  mundi  peccata  crucifixus 
aboleret,  nee  solum  delicta  factorum,  sed  etiam  cupiditates  ani- 
morum.  Caro  enim  haedi  ad  culpam  facti  refertur;  jus  ad  illecebras 
cupiditatum,  sicut  scriptum  est,  "quia  concupivit  populus  cupidi- 
tatem  pessimam,  et  dixerunt,  quis  nos  cibabit  carne?"  (Xum.  XI,  4). 
Quod  igitur  extendit  angelus  virgam,  et  tetigit  petram,  de  qua  ignis 
exiit,  ostendit  quod  caro  Domini  Spiritu  repleta  divino,  peccata 
omnia  humanae  conditionis  exureret.  Unde  et  Dominus  ait,  "ignem 
veni  mittere  in  terram."  (Luc.  XII,  49). 
Analysis  of  the  above  in  accordance  with  the  Norm  of  Augustine 
a.  The  sacrifice  of  Gideon. 
Commotus  oraculo  Gedeon, 

cum  audisset  quod  deficientibus  licet  populorum  millibus, 
in  uno  viro  Dominus  plebem  suam  ab  hostibus  liberaret, 


44    CICERO  S   INFLUENCE   UPON   AUGUSTINE  S  ORATORICAL  THEORY 

obtulit  haedum  caprarum, 

cuius  carnem  secundum  praeceptum  angeli, 

et  azyma  supra  petram  posuit, 

et  eo  iure  perfudit : 

quae  simul  ut  virgae  cacumine,  quam  gerebat, 

angelus  Dei  contigit, 

de  petra  ignis  erupit, 

atque  ita  sacrificium  quod  offerebatur 

absumptum  est. 

A  period  of  twelve  membra. 

b.  The  rock  a  type  of  Christ. 
Quo  indicio  declaratum  videtur, 

quod  petra  ilia  typum  habuerit  corporis  Christi ; 

quia  scriptum  est, 

"bibebant  de  consequenti  petra, 

petra  autem  erat  Christus." 

Quod  utique  non  ad  divinitatem  eius, 

sed  ad  carnem  relatum  est, 

quae  sitientium  corda  populorum  perenni  rivo 

sui  sanguinis  inundavit. 

A  period  of  nine  membra. 

c.  The  abolishing  of  the  sins  of  the  world, 
lam  tunc  igitur  in  mysterio  declaratum  est, 
quia  Dominus  Jesus  in  came  sua, 

totius  mundi  peccata  crucifixus  aboleret, 
nee  solum  delicta  factorum, 
sed  etiam  cupiditates  animorum. 
A  period  of  five  membra. 

d.  Interpretation  of  the  preceding  division. 
Caro  enim  haedi  ad  culpam  f acti  ref ertur ; 
ius  ad  illecebras  cupiditatum, 

sicut  scriptum  est, 

"quia  concupivit  populus  cupiditatem  pessimam, 

et  dixerunt, 

quis  non  cibabit  came?" 

A  period  of  six  membra. 

e.  The  flesh  of  the  Master  will  destroy  sin. 
Quod  igitur  extendit  angelus  virgam, 


ILLUSTRATION  OF  THE  PLAIN  STYLE  45 

et  tetigit  petram, 

de  qua  ignis  exiit, 

ostendit  quod  caro  Domini  Spiritu  repleta  divino, 

peccata  omnia  humanae  conditionis  exureret. 

A  period  of  five  membra, 
f.     Conclusion. 

Unde  et  Dominus  ait, 

''ignem  veni  mittere  in  terram." 

A  period  of  two  membra. 
The  above  passages  from  Cyprian  and  St.  Ambrose  maintain 
the  same  characteristics  of  rhetoric  as  those  found  in  the  writings 
of  the  Apostle  Paul. 

They  are  didactic  throughout,  and  set  forth,  the  one  treating  of 
the  Sacrament,  the  other  of  the  equality  of  the  Holy  Spirit  with  the 
Father  and  with  the  Son,  cardinal  principles  in  a  terse  and  vigorous 
way.  They  are  admirably  adapted  to  teaching,  and  conform  in  all 
respects  to  the  Submissa  Dictio. 


XII.  ILLUSTRATION  OF  THE  MIDDLE  STYLE 
D.  D.  C.  IV,  20.  40 :  Habentes  dona  diversa  secundum  gratiam 
quae  data  est  nobis ;  sive  prophetiam,  secundum  regulam  fidei ;  sive 
ministerium,  in  ministrando ;  sive  qui  docet,  in  doctrina ;  sive  qui 
exhortatur,  in  exhortatione ;  qui  tribuit,  in  simplicitate ;  qui  praeest, 
in  soUicitudine ;  qui  miseretur,  in  hilaritate.  Dilectio  sine  simula- 
tione ;  odio  habentes  malum,  adhaerentes  bono  :  charitate  f  raterni- 
tatis  invicem  diligentes,  honore  mutuo  praevenientes,  studio  non 
pigri,  spiritu  ferventes,  Domino  servientes,  spe  gaudentes,  in  tribu- 
latione  patientes,  orationi  instantes,  necessitatibus  sanctorum  com- 
municantes,  hospitalitatem  sectantes.  Benedicite  persequentibus 
vos ;  benedicite,  et  nolite  maledicere.  Gaudere  cum  gaudentibus, 
flere  cum  flentibus :  idipsum  invicem  sentientes.  Non  alta  sapientes, 
sed  humilibus  consentientes !     (Rom.  XII,  6-16). 

Analysis  of  the  above  in  accordance  with  the  Norm  of  Augustine 

a.  Habentes  dona  diversa 
secundum  gratiam 
quae  data  est  nobis ; 
Introductory  caesa. 

b.  sive  prophetiam 
secundum  regulam  fidei; 
sive  ministerium, 

in  ministrando ; 

sive  qui  docet, 

in  doctrina; 

sive  qui  exhortatur, 

in  exhortatione ; 

qui  tribuit, 

in  simplicitate ; 

qui  praeest, 

in  soUicitudine ; 

qui  miseretur, 

in  hilaritate. 

Seven  pairs  of  balanced  caesa. 

c.  Dilectio  sine  simulatione ; 
odio  habentes  malum, 
adhaerentes  bono: 


ILLUSTRATION   OF  THE    MIDDLE   STYLE  47 

charitate  fraternitatis  invicem  diligentes, 

honore  mutuo  praevenientes, 

studio  non  pigri, 

spiritu  ferventes, 

Domino  servientes, 

spe  gaiulentes, 

in  tribulatione  patientes, 

orationi  instantes,  ,  , 

necessitatibus  sanctorum  communicantes, 

hospitalitatem  sectantes. 

A  period  of  six  caesa  and  seven  membra  interlocked. 

d.  Benedicite  persequentibus  vos ; 
benedicite,  et  nolite  maledicere. 
Gaudere  cum  gaudentibus, 
flere  cum  flentibus : 

idipsum  invicem  sentientes. 

A  period  of  two  pairs  of  balanced  membra,  closed  by 
a  single  membrum. 

e.  Non  alta  sapientes, 

sed  humilibus  consentientes ! 
A  closing  period  of  two  balanced  membra. 
It  would  be  difficult  to  find,  in  sacred  literature,  a  specimen  of 
oratory  illustrating  more  perfectly  the  Temperate  Style  than  the 
above  extract  from  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  A  very  high  degree 
of  art  is  employed  in  a  very  delicate  and  inconspicuous  fashion. 
The  passage  is  worthy  of  a  great  religious  teacher,  and  unquestion- 
ably has  the  right  to  stand  as  a  model  of  sacred  eloquence. 


XIII.  ILLUSTRATION  OF  THE  GRAND  STYLE 
D.  D.  C.  IV,  20.  42 :  Ecce,  nunc  tempus  acceptabile,  ecce  nunc 
dies  salutis.  NuUam  in  quoquam  dantes  offensionem,  ut  non  repre- 
hendatur  ministerium  nostrum:  sed  in  omnibus  commendantes 
nosmetipsos  ut  Dei  ministros,  in  multa  patientia,  in  tribulationibus, 
in  necessitatibus,  in  angustiis,  in  plagis,  in  carceribus,  in  seditionibus, 
in  laboribus,  in  vigiliis,  in  ieiuniis,  in  castitate,  in  scientia,  in  longa- 
nimitate,  in  benignitate,  in  Spiritu  sancto,  in  charitate  non  ficta,  in 
verbo  veritatis,  in  virtute  Dei :  per  arma  iustitiae  a  dextris  et  a 
sinistris,  per  gloriam  et  ignobilitatem,  per  infamiam  et  bonam 
f amam ;  ut  seductores,  et  veraces ;  ut  qui  ignoramur,  et  cognosci- 
mur;  quasi  morientes,  et  ecce  vivimus:  coerciti,  et  non  mortificati; 
ut  tristes,  semper  autem  gaudentes ;  sicut  egeni,  multos  autem 
ditantes ;  tanquam  nihil  habentes,  et  omnia  possidentes.  Os  nos- 
trum patet  ad  vos,  o  Corinthii :  cor  nostrum  dilatatum  est.  (IlCor. 
VI,  2-1 1). 
Analysis  of  the  above  in  accordance  with  the  Norm  of  Augustine 

a.  Ecce,  nunc  tempus  acceptabile, 
ecce  nunc  dies  salutis. 

Nullam  in  quoquam  dantes  offensionem, 
ut  non  repreliendatur  ministerium  nostrum : 
sed  in  omnibus  commendantes  nosmetipsos  ut  Dei  min- 
istros, 
Introduction,  of  five  membra,  to  a  vigorous  oratorical 
outburst. 

b.  in  multa  patientia, 
in  tribulationibus, 
in  necessitatibus, 
in  angustiis, 

in  plagis, 

in  carceribus, 

in  seditionibus, 

in  laboribus, 

in  vigiliis, 

in  ieiuniis, 

in  castitate, 

in  scientia, 

in  longanimitate, 

in  benignitate, 

in  Spiritu  sancto, 


ILLUSTRATION    OF  THE   GRAND   STYLE  49 

in  charitate  non  ficta, 

in  verbo  veritatis, 

in  virtute  Dei : 

A  group  of   eighteen   caesa,   beginning   with   the   same 

preposition,  in  which  vehement  emotion  is  given  full 

sway. 

c.  .  per  arma  iustitiae  a  dextris  et  a  sinistris, 

per  gloriam  et  ignobilitatem, 

per  inf amiam  et  bonam  f amam ; 

A  group  of  three  membra,   midway  between  vigorous 

caesa,  in  which  strong  emotion  is,  for  the  moment, 

checked. 

d.  ut  seductores, 
et  veraces ; 

ut  qui  ignoramur, 
et  cognoscimur ; 
quasi  morientes, 
et  ecce  vivimus : 
coerciti, 

et  non  mortificati ; 
ut  tristes, 

semper  autem  gaudentes ; 
sicut  egeni, 

multos  autem  ditantes ; 
tanquam  nihil  habentes, 
et  omnia  possidentes. 

A  group  of  fourteen  caesa,  in  which  the  emotion  is  less 
tense  than  in  the  eighteen  above. 

e.  Os  nostrum  patet  ad  vos,  o  Corinthii : 
cor  nostrum  dilatatum  est. 

A  group  of  two  membra  which  Augustine  characterizes 
as  "ardens". 
"The  majestic  style  of  speech  differs  from  the  Temperate  Style 

,  chiefly  in  that  it  is  not  so  much  decked  out  with  verbal 

ornaments  as  exalted  into  vehemence  by  mental  emotion.  It  uses, 
indeed,  nearly  all  the  ornaments  that  the  other  does ;  but  if  they 
do  not  happen  to  be  at  hand  it  does  not  seek  for  them.  For  it  is 
borne  on  by  its  own  vehemence ;  and  the  force  of  the  thought,  not 
the  desire  for  ornament,  makes  it  seize  upon  any  beauty  of  expres- 
sion that  comes  in  its  way."     {D.  D.  C.  IV,  20.  42). 


XIV.     FUNDAMENTAL  DIFFERENCES  BETWEEN 
AUGUSTINE  AND  CICERO 

(I) 
The  Ecclesiastical  Orator  is  Constantly  Dealing  with  Great 

Themes  ;  The  Legal  Orator  is  Not 

The  three  fundamental  principles  of  the  great  Roman  orator  in 
fashioning  an  eloquent  man  are  briefly  and  succinctly  stated  in 
Orator,  29.  loi :  Is  igitur  erit  eloquens,  qui  poterit  parva  summisse, 
modica  temperate,  magna  granditer  dicere.  Augustine  points  out 
that  Cicero  could  have  exemplified  these  three  principles  so  far  as 
legal  questions  are  concerned,  but  could  not  as  regards  ecclesiastical 
matters.  Questions  of  a  pecuniary  nature  are  small,  those  pertaining 
to  life  and  liberty,  great.  Cases  which  have  nothing  to  do  with  either 
of  these,  but  are  intended  merely  to  give  pleasure,  occupy  a  place 
midway,  as  it  were,  between  the  two,  and  therefore  may  be  called 
middling  or  moderate.  On  the  other  hand  the  ecclesiastical  orator, 
from  his  exalted  position  of  authority,  addresses  the  people  regard- 
ing their  salvation,  temporal  as  well  as  eternal,  and  therefore  what 
he  says  on  all  matters,  even  the  pecuniary,  ought  not  to  seem  unim- 
portant, for  justice  is  never  unimportant.  Haec  autem  tria  ille,  sicut 
ab  eo  dicta  sunt,  in  causis  f orensibus  posset  ostendere ;  non  autem 
hie,  hoc  est  in  ecclesiasticis  quaestionibus,  in  quibus  huiusmodi,  quern 
volumus  informare.  sermo  versatur.  In  illis  enim  ea  parva  dicuntur, 
ubi  de  rebus  pecuniariis  iudicandum  est ;  ea  magna,  ubi  de  salute 
ac  de  capite  hominum :  ea  vero  ubi  nihil  horum  iudicandum  est, 
nihilque  agitur  ut  agat  sive  decernat,  sed  tantummodo  ut  delectetur 
auditor,  inter  utrumque  quasi  media,  et  ob  hoc  modica,  hoc  est 
moderata  dixerunt.  Modicis  enim  modus  nomen  imposuit:  nam 
modica  pro  parvis  abusive,  non  proprie  dicimus.  In  istis  autem 
nostris,  quandoquidem  omnia,  maxime  quae  de  loco  superiore 
populis  dicimus,  ad  hominum  salutem,  nee  temporariam,  sed  aeter- 
nam  referre  debemus,  ubi  etiam  cavendus  est  aeternus  interitus, 
omnia  magna  sunt  quae  dicimus ;  usque  adeo  ut  nee  de  ipsis  pecu- 
niariis rebus  vel  acquirendis  vel  amittendis  parva  videri  debeant, 
quae  doctor  ecclesiasticus  dicit,  sive  sit  ilia  magna,  sive  parva 
pecunia.     Neque  enim  parva  est  iustitia,  quam  profecto  et  in  parva 


DIFFERENCES    BETWEEN    AUGUSTINE   AND    CICERO  5 1 

pecunia  custodire  debemiis,  dicente  Domino ;   "qui  in  minimo  fidelis 
est,  et  in  magno  fidelis  est."     (D.  D.  C.  IV,  i8.  35). 

The  orator  of  Augustine,  then,  in  treating  of  matters  such  as  the 
above,  or  of  one  brother  going  to  law  with  another,  D.  D.  C.  IV, 
18.  36,  or  of  the  statement  of  Jesus  relative  to  the  giving  of  a  cup 
of  cold  water  in  His  name,  ibid.,  37,  should  never  consider  his  sub- 
ject unimportant,  but  should  discuss  it  with  a  tongue  of  fire.  This 
the  orator  of  Cicero  could  never  do. 

(2) 
There  is  a  Quality  in  the  Ecclesiastical  Orator  which  the 
Orator  of  Cicero  does  not  Possess 
Augustine  lays  special  emphasis  upon  the  fact  that  it  is  not  the 
qualities  which  the  ecclesiastical  orator  has  in  common  with  the 
pagan  orator,  that  give  him  delight,  but  the  possession  of  an 
eloquence  combined  with  wisdom  all  his  own.  He  uses  the  eloquence 
of  Cicero's  model  in  such  a  way  that  it  is  conspicuous  neither  for  its 
presence  nor  its  absence.  In  cases  where  it  is  in  conspicuous  e\^- 
dence,  the  matters  spoken  of  are  of  such  a  character  that  it  bursts 
forth  spontaneously,  as  if  wisdom  were  walking  out  of  her  house, 
and  eloquence,  her  faithful  attendant,  following.  Sed  non  ipsa  me 
plus  quam  dici  potest  in  ilia  eloquentia  delectant,  quae  sunt  his  viris 
cum  oratoribus  Gentilium  poetisve  communia :  illud  magis  admiror 
et  stupeo,  quod  ista  nostra  eloquentia  ita  usi  sunt  per  alteram  quan- 
dam  eloquentiam  suam,  ut  nee  deesset  eis,  nee  emineret  in  eis :  quia 
earn  nee  improbari  ab  ilHs,  nee  ostentari  oportebat :  quorum  alterum 
fieret,  si  vitaretur,  alterum  putari  posset,  si  facile  agnosceretur. 
Et  in  quibus  forte  locis  agnoscitur  a  doctis,  tales  res  dicuntur,  ut 
verba  quibus  dicuntur,  non  a  dicente  adhibita,  sed  ipsis  rebus  velut 
sponte  subiuncta  videantur;  quasi  sapientiam  de  domo  sua,  id  est, 
pectore  sapientis  procedere  intelligas,  et  tanquam  inseparabilem 
famulam  etiam  non  vocatam  sequi  eloquentiam.  (Z>.  D.  C.  IV,  6.  10). 

(3) 

The  Ecclesiastical  Orator  should  Employ  the  Temperate 

Style,  as  well  as  the  Grand  Style,  in  Moving 

Men  to  Action 

With  Cicero,  the  object  of  the  Temperate  Style  is  to  please  by 

beauty  of  expression.    Herein  Augustine  takes  a  step  far  in  advance 


52    CICERO  S   INFLUENCE  UPON   AUGUSTINE's  ORATORICAL  THEORY 

of  Cicero,  in  that  he  states  emphatically  that  this  is  not  an  adequate 
end. 

When  what  the  ecclesiastical  orator  has  to  say  is  good  and  useful, 
when  his  hearers  are  acquainted  with  it  and  favorably  disposed 
towards  it,  so  that  they  do  not  need  to  be  instructed  or  conciliated, 
beauty  of  style  may  be  serviceable  in  securing  a  more  prompt  com- 
pliance on  their  part.  The  function  of  all  eloquence,  whatever  its 
form,  being  to  speak  persuasively  and  its  object  to  persuade,  an 
eloquent  man  will  speak  persuasively,  whatever  style  he  may  adopt, 
but  unless  he  succeeds  in  persuading,  his  eloquence  has  failed  of  its 
object.  In  the  Plain  Style,  he  persuades  his  hearers  that  what  he 
says  is  true ;  in  the  Grand  Style  he  persuades  them  to  do  what  they 
know  they  should  do ;  in  the  Temperate  Style  he  persuades  them  that 
his  speech  is  both  eloquent  and  beautiful.  But  of  what  use  is  this 
last  to  the  ecclesiastical  orator?  By  the  use  of  this  Style  he  may 
persuade  men  to  give  up  bad  habits,  or  to  cultivate  good  ones,  if 
they  be  not  so  obstinate  as  to  need  the  Grand  Style.  The  orator  of 
Augustine,  then,  should  use  the  Middle  Style  to  move  men  to  action. 
Illud  vero  quod  agitur  genere  temperato,  id  est,  ut  eloquentia  ipsa 
delectet,  non  est  propter  seipsum  usurpandum;  sed  ut  rebus  quae 
utiliter  honesteque  dicuntur,  si  nee  docente  indigent  eloquio  nee 
movente,  quia  et  scientes  et  faventes  auditores  habent,  aliquanto 
promptius  ex  delectatione  ipsa  elocutionis,  accedat  vel  tenacius  ad- 
herescat  assensus.  Nam  cum  eloquentiae  sit  universale  officium,  in 
quocumque  istorum  trium  generum,  dicere  apte  ad  persuasionem ; 
finis  autem,  id  quod  intenderis,  persuadere  dicendo :  in  quocumque 
istorum  trium  generum  dicit  quidem  eloquens  apte  ad  persuasionem, 
sed  nisi  persuadeat,  ad  finem  non  pervenit  eloquentiae.  Persuadet 
autem  in  submisso  genere  vera  esse  quae  dicit;  persuadet  in  grandi, 
ut  agantur  quae  agenda  esse  iam  sciuntur,  nee  aguntur;  persuadet 
in  genere  temperato,  pulchre  omateque  se  dicere :  quo  fine  nobis 
quid  opus  est?  Appetant  eum  qui  lingua  gloriantur,  et  se  in  pane- 
gyricis  talibusque  dictionibus  iactant,  ubi  nee  docendus,  nee  ad 
aliquid  agendum  movendus,  sed  tantummodo  est  delectandus  auditor. 
Nos  vero  istum  finem  referamus  ad  alterum  finem,  ut  scilicet  quod 
efficere  volumus,  cum  granditer  dicimus,  hoc  etiam  isto  velimus,  id 
est,  ut  bona  morum  diligantur,  vel  devitentur  mala ;  si  ab  hac  actione 
non   sic  alieni    sunt   homines,   ut  ad   eam   grandi    genere    dictionis 


DIIFERENCES    BETWEEN    AUGUSTINE    AND    CICERO  53 

urgendi  videantiir:  aut,  si  iam  id  agunt,  ut  agant  studiosius,  atque 
in  eo  firmiter  perseverent.  Ita  fit  ut  etiam  temperati  generis  ornatu, 
non  iactanter,  sed  prudcnter  utamur :  non  eius  fine  contenti,  quo 
tantummodo  delectatur  auditor ;  sed  hoc  potius  agentes,  ut  etiam 
ipso  ad  bonum  quod  persuadere  volumus,  adiuvetur.  {D.  D.  C.  IV, 
25- 55)- 

(4) 
The  Ecclesiastical  Orator  should  Pray  before  Speaking 

Though  the  ecclesiastical  orator  do  all  he  can  to  be  heard  with 
intelligence,  with  pleasure,  and  with  obedience,  if  he  succeed,  his 
success  will  be  due  more  to  piety  in  prayer  than  to  the  gifts  of  ora- 
tory. He  should  pray  both  for  himself  and  for  those  whom  he  is 
about  to  address.  When  the  time  comes  for  him  to  speak  he  should 
lift  up  his  thirsty  soul  to  God  and  drink  in  that  which  he  is  soon  to 
pour  forth.  The  subjects  on  which  he  may  speak  are  many,  and  many 
are  the  ways  of  speaking  on  them,  but  it  is  God  who  knows  the 
hearts  of  all,  and  how  to  attune  both  speaker  and  hearers.  Agit 
itaque  noster  iste  eloquens,  cum  et  iusta  et  sancta  et  bona  dicit,  neque 
enim  alia  debet  dicere ;  agit  ergo  quantum  potest  cum  ista  dicit,  ut 
intelligenter,  ut  libenter,  ut  obedienter  audiatur :  et  haec  se  posse, 
si  potuerit,  et  in  quantum  potuerit,  pietate  magis  orationum,  quam 
oratorum  f acultate  non  dubitet ;  ut  orando  pro  se,  ac  pro  illis  quos 
est  allocuturus,  sit  orator  antequam  dictor.  Ipsa  hora  iam  ut  dicat 
accedens,  priusquam  exserat  proferentem  linguam,  ad  Deum  levet 
animam  sitientem,  ut  eructet  quod  biberit,  vel  quod  impleverit 
fundat.  Cum  enim  de  unaquaque  re,  quae  secundum  fidem  dilec- 
tionemque  tractanda  sunt,  multa  sint  quae  dicantur,  et  multi  modi 
quibus  dicantur  ab  eis  qui  haec  sciunt;  qui  novit  quid  ad  praesens 
tempus,  vel  nobis  dicere,  vel  per  nos  expediat  audiri,  nisi  qui  corda 
omnium  videt?  et  quis  facit  ut  quod  oportet,  et  quemadmodum 
oportet,  dicatur  a  nobis,  nisi  in  cuius  manu  sunt  et  nos  et  sermones 
nostri?  (Sap.  VII,  i6).  Ac  per  hoc,  discat  quidem  omnia  quae 
docenda  sunt,  qui  et  nosse  vult  et  docere:  facultatemque  dicendi, 
ut  decet  virum  ecclesiasticum,  comparet :  ad  horam  vero  ipsius  dic- 
tionis,  illud  potius  bonae  menti  cogitet  convenire  quod  Dominus  ait, 
"Nolite  cogitare  quomodo  aut  quid  loquamini ;  dabitur  enim  vobis 
in  ilia  hora  quid  loquamini :  non  enim  vos  estis  qui  loquimini,  sed 
Spiritus  Patris  vestri  qui  loquitur  in  vobis".     (Matt.  X,  19  and  20). 


54    CICERO  S  INFLUENCE   UPON  AUGUSTINE  S  ORATORICAL  THEORY 

Si  ergo  loquitur  in  eis  Spiritus  Sanctus,  qui  persequentibus  traduntur 
pro  Christo,  cur  non  et  in  eis  qui  tradunt  discentibus  Christum? 
(i?.Z).  CIV,  15.32). 

(5) 

The  Ecclesiastical  Orator  may  Deliver  that  which  has  been 

Written  by  one  more  Eloquent  than  Himself 

Finally  Augustine  advances  the  doctrine  that  a  man  who  has 
a  good  delivery,  but  who  is  unable  to  compose  anything  worth  de- 
livering, may  avail  himself  of  that  which  has  been  written,  with 
wisdom  and  eloquence,  by  another.  He  may  commit  it  to  memory 
and  deliver  it  to  the  people  without  being  charged  with  practicing 
deception.  In  this  way  many  become  proclaimers  of  the  truth  and 
yet  not  many  teachers,  for  in  the  last  analysis,  the  ecclesiastical 
orator  delivers  that  which  the  Great  Teacher  has  composed.  Sunt 
sane  quidam  qui  bene  pronuntiare  possunt,  quid  autem  pronuntient, 
excogitare  non  possunt.  Quod  si  ab  aliis  sumant  eloquenter  sapien- 
terque  conscriptum,  memoriaeque  commendent,  atque  ad  populum 
prof erant ;  si  eam  personam  gerunt,  non  improbe  faciunt.  Sic  enim, 
quod  profecto  utile  est,  multi  praedicatores  veritatis  fiunt,  nee  multi 
magistri,  si  unius  veri  magistri  idipsum  dicant  omnes,  et  non  sint 
in  eis  schismata.     {D.  D.  C.  IV,  29.  62). 


XV.     SUMMARY 

This  comparative  study  of  the  rhetorical  writings  of  Augustine 
with  those  of  Cicero,  leads  me  to  conclude  that  Augustine  modeled 
his  ideal  ecclesiastical  orator  after  the  pattern  of  Cicero's  ideal 
orator;  that  with  Cicero,  the  ideal  orator  was  concerned  in  suits 
and  cases  of  many  and  various  kinds,  while  the  orator  of  Augustine 
deals  with  the  morals  and  the  souls  of  men  and  women,  and  dis- 
cusses such  lofty  themes  as  God,  the  Trinity,  and  Immortality. 

As  regards  the  moral  character  of  the  orator  of  Augustine,  his 
•  conception  is  the  same  as  that  of  Cicero,  with  the  exception  that  the 
ecclesiastical  orator  may  not  be  without  serious  blemish  and  defect 
of  character,  and  yet  may  be  a  pow^erful  orator,  and  that  this  excep- 
tion is  more  apparent  than  real,  inasmuch  as  it  is  the  message  of 
the  ecclesiastical  orator  that  makes  the  exception. 

As  to  the  duty  of  the  ecclesiastical  orator,  we  may  conclude  that 
this  is  to  be  found  in  the  sketch  which  Augustine  drew,  in  bold 
relief,  of  the  ecclesiastical  orator  fashioned  after  the  ideals  of  the 
elaborate  and  finished  treatment  of  Cicero's  ideal  orator. 

Also  as  regards  the  training  of  the  ecclesiastical  orator,  as  Cicero 
would  make  the  study  of  rhetoric  an  indispensable  prerequisite  in 
the  qualification  of  his  orator,  so  would  Augustine  employ  it  in  the 
training  of  his  orator  in  order  that  he  may  defend  truth  and  oppose 
error  the  more  effectively,  and  that  he  may  put  his  hearers  in  the 
proper  frame  of  mind,  by  neatness  and  elegance  of  speech,  and  in- 
struct, delight  and  move  them  as  occasion  may  demand,  and  that 
he  may  be  as  effective  in  the  defense  of  truth  as  his  opponents  are 
in  the  propagation  of  error. 

Furthermore,  as  to  the  time  to  begin  the  training  of  the  orator, 
and  the  manner  of  the  same,  Augustine  would  have  him  begin  in 
early  youth,  and  master  the  rules  quickly,  or  else  they  can  never  be 
mastered  at  all ;  but  that  on  the  other  hand,  men  whose  earlier 
rhetorical  education  has  been  defective,  but  who  are  quick  intellec- 
tually, may  become  eloquent  more  readily  by  reading  the  speeches, 
and  listening  to  the  orations  of  eloquent  men,  than  by  attention  to  the 
rules  of  eloquence;  and  that  these  conceptions  are  taken  from 
Cicero. 


56   Cicero's  influence  upon  Augustine's  oratorical  theory 

As  regards  the  possession  of  wisdom,  the  ecclesiastical  orator 
should  speak  with  wisdom,  even  though  it  be  without  eloquence, 
especially  when  his  hearers  are  pleased  with  his  eloquence,  and 
think  that  since  he  speaks  fluently,  he  must  also  be  wise ;  that  this 
idea,  while  an  evident  one,  is  specifically  set  forth  by  Cicero. 

Again,  as  to  the  kind  of  wisdoiii  necessary  for  the  ecclesiastical 
orator  in  order  that  he  may  speak  with  wisdom  even  though  it  be 
without  eloquence,  he  should  possess  an  exact  knowledge  of  the 
words  of  Scripture,  as  well  as  a  deep  insight  into  their  spiritual 
meaning,  to  the  end  that  he  may  the  more  surely  enrich  his  speech, 
which  may  otherwise  be  poor,  and  that  he  may  the  more  certainly 
influence  his  hearers  as  he  may  see  fit;  that  corresponding  to  this 
notion  is  that  conception  of  Cicero,  by  which  philosophy  takes  the 
place  of  Scripture,  and  in  place  of  the  exact  words  and  passages  of 
Scripture,  would  substitute  certain  "topica"  which  fall  under  the 
domain  of  philosophy;  that  as  Augustine  would  have  his  orator 
grounded  in  Scripture  and  rhetoric,  so  would  Cicero  have  his 
equipped  correspondingly  in  philosophy  and  rhetoric. 

Also  that  he  would  have  his  orator  read  eloquent  speeches,  and 
listen  to  eloquent  men ;  that  he,  like  Cicero,  would  have  his  orator 
practice  himself  in  the  art  of  waiting;  that,  as  with  Cicero,  so  would 
he  have  his  orator  choose  an  ideal  model  to  imitate. 

Furthermore,  that  the  offices  of  the  ecclesiastical  orator  are  de- 
rived from  Cicero ;  that  Cicero's  orator,  while  dealing  with  the  many 
phases  of  legal  and  civic  questions,  has  for  his  object  the  same  thing 
as  that  of  the  ecclesiastical  orator,  that  is,  to  teach,  to  delight,  and 
to  move,  and  that  these  functions  are  thoroughly  natural  and  psy- 
chological, and  deal  respectivelyj  with  the  intellect,  the  sensibilities, 
and  the  will  of  the  hearer. 

Again,  that  from  the  three-fold  function  of  the  orator,  that  of 
teaching,  delighting  and  persuading,  there  are  naturally  developed 
three  styles  of  oratory  psychologically  adapted  to  these  offices,  and 
which  may  be  called  the  Plain,  the  Middle,  and  the  Grand  Styles, 
whose  technical  nomenclature,  in  the  original,  is  derived  directly 
from  Cicero ;  that  from  the  adverbs,  submisse,  temperate,  and 
granditer,  Orator,  29.  loi,  Augustine  derived  the  names  of  his  three 
styles  of  oratory,  that  is,  Submissa  dictio,  Temperata  dictio,  and 
Grandis  dictio.  Further,  that  as  with  Cicero,  so  with  Augustine, 
the  Plain  Style  is  intended  for  use  in  instruction,  in  explanation,  and 


SUMMARY  '  .  •  ,  57 

in  clearing  up  difificult  matters  containing  technicalities  and  obscuri- 
ties ;  and  that  the  term,  Plain  Style,  refers  exclusively  to  the  diction 
or  phraseolog}-,  and  not  to  the  thought,  which  may  be  exceedingly 
terse  and  complicated ;  that  as  Cicero  used  this  style  in  difficult 
cases  pertaining  to  matters  of  law,  so  does  Augustine  parallel  Cicero 
by  showing  the  fitness  of  the  Plain  Style  in  dealing  with  like  sub- 
jects, such  as  the  Mosaic  Law,  for  instance;  that  the  function  of 
the  ]\Iiddle  Style  is  to  please  by  beauty  of  diction  and  ornamentation 
of  style ;  to  conciliate,  and  to  put  the  hearers  in  a  friendly,  attentive, 
and  teachable  frame  of  mind,  so  that  they  may  be  the  more  easily 
influenced  by  the  orator  in  any  way  he  may  see  fit  to  direct;  that 
this  conception  is  taken  entirely  from  Cicero  as  shown  most  clearly 
from  the  Orator;  that  the  object  of  the  Grand  Style  is  to  move  men 
to  action  by  the  power  and  vehemence  of  speech ;  that  it  consists 
of  a  vehement  and  powerful  character,  and  that  this  vehemence  is, 
in  the  main,  one  of  thought  and  mental  emotion  vigorously  com- 
pressed within  strong  and  commanding  language ;  that  wherever 
need  may  be,  it  is  the  province  of  this  style  to  break  through  the 
most  stubborn  and  obdurate  natures  and  compel  them  to  do  the  bid- 
ding of  the  orator ;  and  that  this  conception  also  is  taken  wholly 
from  Cicero  as  abundantly  set  forth  in  his  oratorical  theory. 

Again,  if  the  orator  would  not  grow  tiresome  and  tedious  to  his 
hearers,  he  must  alternate  the  employment  of  these  styles,  now  using 
the  one,  and  now  the  other,  and  that  in  doing  so,  the  utmost  skill 
and  caution  should  be  exercised  in  order  that  he  may  best  advance 
the  interest  of  the  undertaking  he  may  have  at  hand,  and  that,  fur- 
thermore, this  conception  is  also  taken  wholly  from  Cicero. 

Also,  that,  as  regards  the  interpretation  of  these  divisions  of 
style,  the  first  and  logical  division  that  Augustine  made  of  the  fourth 
book  of  De  Doctr'ina  Christiana,  was  a  two-fold  one,  that  of  philoso- 
phy, or  Scripture  and  rhetoric ;  that  this  division  is  in  all  essential 
respects  the  same  as  that  made  in  Contra  Crcsconium;  that  the  two- 
fold division  into  philosophy,  or  Scripture,  and  rhetoric,  is  a  recog- 
nition of  the  respective  claims  of  philosophy  and  rhetoric,  as  was 
also  recognized  by  Cicero ;  that  as  Cicero  finally  made  a  three-fold 
division  of  style,  as  seen  in  the  Brutus,  so  does  Augustine  also  fol- 
low him  in  this  respect. 

Again,  that  as  regards  the  character  of  the  eloquence  of  Augus- 
tine's orator,  since  there  is  an  eloquence  suitable  to  youth,  and  one 


5o    CICERO  S' rXF-LUENCfi   L'PON   AUGUSTINE  S  ORATORICAL   THEORY 

adapted  to  old  age,  so  there  is  an  eloquence  peculiarly  appropriate 
to  the  ecclesiastical  orator ;  and  that  in  the  norm  of  Augustine's 
sacred  oratory,  as  represented  by  the  best  specimens  from  Paul, 
Amos,  Cyprian,  and  Ambrose,  he  chose  as  his  voice  unit,  or  units, 
of  oratorical  rhythm,  the  caesa,  the  membra,  and  the  period ;  that 
these  divisions  are,  within  certain  limits,  arbitrary,  it  being  often- 
times difficult  to  distinguish  between  caesa  and  membra,  since  both 
are  statements  finished  in  a  single  tone  of  voice,  and  these  units  taken 
together  in  accordance  with  the  oratorical  thought  or  movement 
which  they  comprehend,  form  what  may  be  called  a  group,  a  divi- 
sion, or  a  period ;  and  that  in  each  style,  the  Plain,  the  IMiddle,  and 
the  Grand,  these  caesa  and  membra  are  vital  constituents,  and  are 
therefore  capable  of  analysis ;  that  however  arbitrary  the  process 
may  appear,  membra  being  cut  up  now  into  caesa,  and  caesa  now 
being  prolonged  into  membra,  there  are  nevertheless,  an  oratorical, 
a  rhythmical,  and  a  thought  structure  in  each  group,  division,  or 
period,  which  are  easily  discernible. 

Finally,  as  regards  the  fundamental  differences  between  Cicero 
and  Augustine,  it  is  clear  that  the  ecclesiastical  orator  dififers  from 
the  ideal  orator  of  Cicero,  in  that  he  is  always  dealing  with  great 
themes  which  pertain  to  the  welfare  of  humanity  both  here  and  here- 
after, such  as  love,  mercy,  justice  and  the  like,  whereas  the  ideal 
orator  is  confined  to  themes  which,  from  their  very  character,  cannot 
attain  to  such  dignity,  such  as  debt,  citizenship,  personal  rights  and 
the  like ;  that  there  is  a  quality,  sui  generis,  belonging  to  the  eccle- 
siastical orator,  which  Cicero's  ideal  orator  can  never  possess,  the 
felicitous  union  of  Christian  wisdom  as  guide,  with  eloquence  as  a 
faithful  attendant;  that  the  ecclesiastical  orator  should  pray  to  God 
for  wisdom,  eloquence,  and  guidance,  and  that  speaker  and  hearers 
be  put  in  the  proper  frame  of  heart  and  mind,  a  thought  entirely 
Christian;  that  whereas  Cicero  would  use  the  Middle  Style  to  please 
by  the  elegance  and  beauty  of  its  diction,  Augustine  would  employ 
it  for  the  nobler  purpose  of  persuading  men  and  women  to  live  more 
worthy  and  useful  lives;  that  the  ecclesiastical  orator  may  deliver 
with  great  effect,  what  has  been  written  with  wisdom  and  eloquence 
by  another,  without  being  considered  as  having  practiced  deception 
upon  those  who  hear. 

Finis. 


168135 


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